Ford vs. Firestone

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The two companies I chose for this assignment were Ford Motor Company and Bridgestone/Firestone Americas Holding, Inc. Despite the fact that the two companies operate in different industries, they complement each other very well. The reason why I chose Ford Motor Company was because they are thought of as leaders in their industry for total quality management. The minute I decided to use Ford Motor Company as one of my companies, the Firestone tire recall of August 000 was the first thing that popped into my head. Because the recall made such a huge impact on Ford Motor Company and individual consumers, I felt that it would be a perfect company to use to demonstrate the aspects of poor total quality management versus superb total quality management and how that affects not only individual consumers but also business consumers.

Ford Motor Company began a manufacturing revolution with its mass production assembly lines in the early 100s. Now the company is firmly entrenched in the status quo as the worlds largest pickup truck maker and the # producer of cars and trucks, behind General Motors. It makes vehicles with such brands as Aston Martin, Ford, Jaguar, Lincoln, Mercury, and Volvo. Among its biggest successes are the Ford Taurus and F-Series pickup. Ford owns a controlling % stake in Mazda and has purchased BMWs Land Rover SUV operations. The finance subsidiary, Ford Motor Credit, is the U.S.s #1 auto finance company. It also owns Hertz, the worlds #1 car-rental firm.

Bridgestone/Firestone Americas Holding, Inc., the North American subsidiary of Bridgestone Corporation, makes Bridgestone, Firestone, Dayton, and private-brand tires for cars, trucks, motorcycles, tractors, and earthmoving machinery. They also make air springs, roofing materials, synthetic rubber, and industrial fibers and textiles. The company is trying to regain traction after recalling 6.5 million of Firestone ATX, ATX II, and ATX Wilderness tires, primarily the ones on Ford Motor Company's Ford Explorer, due to the allegations that the tires fell apart at highway speeds. This recall ended Bridgestone/Firestone Americas Holding, Inc.'s 5-year relationship with Ford Motor Company.

There are several differences between the manufacturing processes, corporate culture, and the performance results of Ford Motor Company and Bridgestone/Firestone Americas Holding, Inc. that distinguishes one as a quality company and the other as one of the opposite. Ford concentrates more on the elimination of waste, prevention, and continuous improvement versus Bridgestone/Firestone's attitude of tolerance of waste, inspection, and fire fighting. Ford's rebuilding strategy has an explicit focus on improving quality and building on work in progress to improve quality in their design, sourcing, and production processes. They are using 6-Sigma processes to identify and resolve quality issues in their manufacturing and business processes. This is an extensive quality improvement initiative designed to reduce variability and improve efficiency. One way of enhancing their current manufacturing processes and reducing variability in their systems is through the new Ford "Quality is Job1" 00 standard. Since its inception, Ford Q1 certification recognizes supplier facilities and organizations whose quality systems meet stringent prerequisites. It builds on existing requirements and stresses continual improvement, consistent metrics, manufacturing discipline, variability reduction and customer satisfaction. These Joint supplier/Ford 6-Sigma projects are producing improvements in both customer satisfaction and waste elimination.

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Bridgestone/Firestone Americas Holding, Inc., however, is doing the complete opposite of Ford. Instead of using its efforts to eliminate waste and strive for continuous improvement, Bridgestone/Firestone is tolerating waste and confronting problems only as they occur. According to USA TODAY, there is evidence that the tire company did, in fact, recognize a problem well before the recall. The Bridgestone/Firestone documents showed that it tracked ATX tread-peeling problems since 14. The ATX tires accounted for 4% of property-damage and personal-injury claims among light-truck tires in 14, up from just 1% in 1 (Healey, 000). Eventually, the ATX tires accounted for more than half of the companys light-truck-tire claims. In spite of all that, the company decided to increase the production of the ATX tires so that its prominence in the claims didnt raise a flag. Even though the executives and managers across the company knew about the consumer claims for reimbursement for damage caused by peeling treads, it didnt trigger alarm bells because the industry uses warranty claims to measure tire performance. On top of that, eight former employees of Bridgestone/Firestone confessed that they used out-of-date rubber stock for their tires; that radial coils were exposed to high humidity from a lack of air conditioning, making it more likely that corrosion would occur on the brass-coated steel in the steel-belted radial tires; and that final inspections were done too quickly. According to the Washington Post, some Decatur employees would engage in practices, such as puncturing bubbles on tires, to cover up flaws on products that should have been scrapped (Grimaldi, 000). As a result, Bridgestone/Firestone didn't confront the tire problems until it was too late. It wasn't until people's lives were lost did they recall 6.5 million tires.

In addition to the manufacturing process differences, there is also a difference in corporate culture between the two companies. Ford Motor Company presents itself as an extremely customer-driven company whereas Bridgestone/Firestone is more company-driven. Ford focuses on measuring customer satisfaction in many ways, including surveying customers about the appeal of their products, their satisfaction with the sales and service experience and the quality of the product throughout the customer's ownership. Studies are done as early as 0 days and as long as four to five years after purchase. These studies enable Ford to build future vehicles to the customers' specifications. Ford also tracks the percentage of first-time and repeat customers each year. Ford Brand sales and service satisfaction continues to improve every month and, so far, both measures are indicating an all-time high.

Bridgestone/Firestone, on the other hand, focuses more on productivity and financial results rather than the customers. The Firestone plant in Decatur, Illinois that manufactured many of the 6.5 million tires recalled was rife with quality control problems, with workers using questionable tactics to speed production and managers giving short shrift to inspections. In order to meet stringent quotas, inspections of finished tires were for 0-0 seconds or often virtually nonexistent. A retired Bridgestone/Firestone employee, Joe Roundtree, stated, "If you got behind on the lines, some of the tires would pass without being inspected" (Grimaldi, 000). Employees also had powerful financial incentives to release botched tires to the motoring public. Quality was definitely being sacrificed for quantity.

On top of that, there is also a distinct difference in the value placed on employees between the two companies. Ford, who operates in a leadership style, realized that in order to be successful in any business, their core assets, their employees, must be taken care of and valued as an important part of the company. So to show part of their appreciation to their employees, Ford has established some programs and strategies that help better the lives of their employees. They have created a program that enhances worklife integration through the Family Service and Learning Centers. More than 00,000 active employees, retirees and their families will benefit from childcare, before- and after-school programs, teen programs and adult and family education classes. A volunteer support network also will allow families to contribute to their communities. With regards to stress, Ford formed a program that made significant efforts to address job-related stress and workload issues. Ford remained committed to the process of feedback, action planning, communication, and management initiatives to reduce levels of stress throughout the year. In addition to employee stress reduction, Ford has also established accountability for health and safety performance. They measure health and safety performance according to several standard indicators including lost time injuries and severity rates. They use indicators of their capacity to manage health and safety effectively to prevent accidents and improve continuously. Through the Ford Production System, they conduct periodic safety and health audits of the management systems and procedures globally.

Besides taking care of the employees, Ford has also empowered its employees by letting them be a part of the company through communication and decision-making. They communicate with their employees through email, intranet and television broadcasts. The managers use a cascading process to share and discuss key decisions and initiatives with all of their employees. They work closely with union leaders to identify and address issues of concern to their hourly workers. They also recognize the need to go beyond communication to true engagement by providing means and opportunities for employees to contribute their views before important choices are made. A process of this type already is in place in Europe where Ford has well-established arrangements for consulting with employee representatives on a wide variety of matters including restructuring.

Bridgestone/Firestone, however, doesn't seem to place significant value on their employees. They operate in a more management style in which they treat their employees as mere workers and not valuable assets. The workers at a Bridgestone/Firestone plant in Decatur, Illinois were on strike during the time many of the 6.5 million tires recalled were made. Labor discord flared at Decatur after Bridgestone/Firestone demanded concessions from the union in 14, including a move from 8-hour work shifts to rotating, 1-hour, day-and-night shifts. When the union struck, the company hired lower-wage replacement workers. The union eventually capitulated in 15, and union members began returning at reduced pay to work 1-hour shifts alongside replacement workers. Besides the long work shifts and low pay, Bridgestone/Firestone employees also worked in poor working conditions where there were high humidity and no air conditioning. Employee empowerment was also unheard of at Bridgestone/Firestone. Employees felt intimidated by management. The intimidation was so overwhelming that the employees felt that they had to do whatever to meet production quotas, even if it meant producing poor quality tires. Rather than encouraging input from their employees, Bridgestone/Firestone management told the employees what to do and how to do it. There is evidence that suggests that the 10's labor dispute and poor working conditions at the Decatur, IL plant contributed to the production of the many defective tires

As a result, because of Ford's superb total quality management, the ,500 6-Sigma projects that they undertook in 001 resulted in customer satisfaction improvements in many vehicle lines and $5 million in cost savings. A recent study done by the National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration showed that not only did Ford have fewer safety recalls than its major competitors, but significantly fewer vehicles were affected. In addition, employee satisfaction is slowly improving. Compared to global blue-chip companies that employ at least 10,000 employees, Ford's favorable ratings continue to exceed similar manufacturing companies, including many of their competitors, by an average of nearly seven percentage points.

Bridgestone/Firestone, on the other hand, suffered tremendously from their poor total quality management. Because of the poor quality of the tires, 148 lives were lost and 55 people have been injured. In addition, they had to spend $750 million in direct costs for the recall and on legal settlements. They also ended up sabotaging a 5-year supplier relationship with Ford, one of their biggest consumers, and they lost confidence from their individual consumers as well. Things had gotten so bad that the company's own public relations agency, Fleishman-Hillard, had to dropped them. A recent CNN.com poll asked, "Would you ever buy a Firestone product again?" More than 6% answered "No" (CNNMONEY, 000). According to Rod Lache, automobile industry analyst at Deutsche Banc Alex, the Firestone brand is damaged beyond repair.

In conclusion, it is obvious here on how important it is to have total quality management in every aspect of your business. Even though implementing a total quality management system is expensive and seeing results is a slow process, in the long run, it is extremely profitable. Ford is an example of how patience is rewarded in the long run with quality products and high customer satisfaction. It was too bad, however, that Bridgestone/Firestone had to learn this the hard way. They had to learn that in order to satisfy external customers, they had to satisfy their internal customers, their employees, and their internal processes. However, by the time they found this out, it was too late. Because of their neglect and out-dated management style, the Firestone brand is forever damaged in they eyes of their consumers.

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Assess the nature of modernisation of the Labour Party since the 1980s and the specific impact of Tony Blair's leadership on the Labour Party modernisation.

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As Eric Shaw rightfully points out between 17 and 18 Labour was "wrenched apart by ruptures of an unprecedented ferocity which inflicted enduring harm on its public image and contributed to the electoral disaster of 18." (Shaw, 16) After the General Election defeat in 17, the Labour party began to follow the outmoded ideas of the left-wing tradition touted by Tony Benn who had stepped in after the 17 defeat to fill the intellectual vacuum that existed within the Party. At this period in time, the party was in virtual civil war. With the Bennite faction gaining important foot holds in policy formulation at the Blackpool Conference of 180 (Unilateral Disarmament and withdrawal from the Common Market) and at the Wembley Conference of 181 (Electoral Collage), the fateful decision was taken by a group of right-wing MPs (known as the 'Gang of Four' - Roy Jenkins, Shirley Williams, David Owen and Bill Rogers) to set up a breakaway party the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The balance had been tipped in November of 180 when Michael Foot narrowly beat Dennis Healey to the Labour leadership. It was at that point really that the four eventually gave up the party as a lost cause. The SDP breakaway and the formation of the Alliance was, as Giles Radice concedes, "an unmitigated disaster for the Labour Party", and one which he believes that they did not recover from until after the election of 1. (Radice, 4) The SDP were to have an impact not only in strengthening the 'third force' in British politics, but it would also have an effect on the structural framework of the New Labour Party in 14/5.

Under the ramshackle leadership of Michael Foot, the Labour Party entered the 18 General Election dubbed by both Tories and the press as the 'Looney Left'. The manifesto dubbed by Gerald Kaufman as 'the longest suicide note in history' lead Labour to a crushing defeat, with the party vote dropping to a mere 7.6% its lowest level since 118. The time had come to revitalise the party, and sow the seeds that would put it back on the road to electability and power.

The election of Neil Kinnock, as I think we now see in hindsight, was a crucial step forward for the Labour Party. Kinnock, essentially a pragmatist, was now the new leader of the Opposition with a monumental task ahead of him, one which Pearce and Stewart believe that he shouldered willingly. He had to make the Party re-elect able, but before he could do that he had to win the trust back from the electorate, and show them that the Labour Party was a responsible and moderate party. (Best emphasised in his 185 Fabian lecture 'The Future of Socialism' Pg.115 & 116 of Tudor Jones) Between 18 and 187 he did this in a number of ways

1. The 184 Miners Strike Kinnock although sympathetic to the plight of the individual miner, did not support the strike. (Scargill had not balloted all the members and had adopted a creeping strategy based on individual pits joining the struggle). It was Kinnock's belief that the strike was less about mining and more about an ideological struggle.

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. Militant Kinnock felt that the antics of Militant Tendency within the Party was highly damaging to the Party's image and the electorate's perception of it. He was forced to act, and at the 185 Bournemouth Conference he criticised the individuals concerned (one being Derek Hatton) from the platform. He began to expel them from the party in 186 (starting with 8 from Militant, he would eventually remove 50 members from the Party including to MPs David Nellist and Terry Fields).

. Organisational changes The main thrust between 18 and 187 general elections where organisational. In June 185, Larry Whitty began to rationalise the Labour Party organisation and replaced the ten departments with three directorates covering administration, publicity and research. In addition policy formation began to shift away from the traditional focus of the National Executive Committee (NEC) to inner circles of policy advisors, with the leadership taking a more directorial role in this area. (Pearce & Stewart, 00).

Yet with another large defeat to the Tories in the 187 General Election (101-seat majority) it was hard to hide the bitter disappointment of a Party that fought a very sleek and choreographed campaign. Ben Pimlott summed up the problems that Party came up against at the election

Labour fought a brilliant campaign but its policy base was weak and the product kept on showing through…much in Labour's manifesto was merely negative resistance to Tory measures or the half apologetic playing of ancient tunes. Gone were the acute embarrassments of 18. In their place was a designer socialist blandness.

The many traditionalists in the Party claimed that the Armani suits and the portable telephones of the 'socialist yuppies' risked undermining what the Labour Party stood for since its creation. Others, most notably the new generation of 'modernisers', did not agree and pointed to a third successive defeat if they reverted back. A situation reminiscent of 15 took shape. The leadership was clear in its own mind that either Labour broke out of the electoral doldrums in the 10s or it risked disappearing as a viable political force altogether. It was in this vein that Kinnock established the Labour Party Policy Review, under the directorship of Tom Sawyer, within days of the 187 defeat. Within two years the Review had turned around the most damaging policy lines that had contributed to the last three general election defeats. In the newly published policy document entitled, 'Meet the Challenge, Make the Change', unveiled in 18, the first signs of what has become 'New' Labour could be seen

• Out went uni-lateralism and in came multi-lateralism.

• In European terms was now a supporter of continued membership as well as closer ties with Britain's European partners.

• There was a shift towards an acceptance of the new economic landscape in Britain. Labour was now looking to run a capitalist market economy better than the Tories.

• Acceptance of the irrevocable shift into the privatised world of many previously government-owned and controlled companies and utilities (even the idea of 51% were abandoned by Labour in the early 10s).

• Acceptance of some of the Tory Trade Union legislation (especially when it came to the balloting of members over important issues).

• Taxation was to be progressive but the higher bands were to be limited.

• Some of the traditional elements did still remain commitment to full employment and Clause IV (though Kinnock was unsure of its implications on a rapidly modernising Labour Party).

• Further changes flagged by Kinnock OMOV at the 187 Brighton Conference.

There was no doubt that by the General Election of 1 Labour were a new political force, it was now a credible party machine. Yet there were still a number of key elements that troubled the party which included tax and spend policy, where the Labour Party capable of running a sound economy that was just tax and spend? And the eligibility of the Labour leader was also a telling question could anyone see Neil Kinnock at No.10? Unfortunately for Kinnock the answer was no. Kinnock's second defeat saw him stand down immediately, and look for a career elsewhere.

The Party once again needed a new leader, but this time one candidate seemed to emerge with overwhelming support. John Smith was MP for Monklands East and was also the Shadow Chancellor. He won a resounding victory over Bryan Gould taking 1% of the vote. There was no doubt that Smith was going to continue where Kinnock left off and would take the modernisation of the Party forward. Smith chose the further democratisation of the Party and launched into a campaign to bring about OMOV. The issue was taken to conference in September 1 and Smith won by a very small margin. He had secured a reduction of the Trade union vote from 40% to .% and individual voting rights for all party members. Whether or not Smith would have gone from here and continued the pace of change we will never know, for his career came to a tragic end with a fatal heart attack in May 14. Once more the Party need a leader of a new generation that would continue the momentum forward.

Tony Blair, who came through the leadership contest by beating Prescott and Beckett, was the first leader to be voted in by OMOV rules. He had heavy support amongst the PLP and the CLP rather than through the trade unions and levy payers. But the pace of change would not slacken under Blair. Modernisation for him, as he later explained, was 'about returning Labour to its traditional role as a majority mainstream party advancing the interests of the broad majority of the people', a role which, in his view, the Party had abandoned after 17, when the 'activists steamrollered the leadership and put about the myth that we lost because we were not sufficiently traditionalist socialist.'(Jones, 15). Blair was ready to do what Gaitskell tried and failed, and Kinnock and Smith secretly thought about but had not dared to try. He was prepared from the out-set to re-draft the Party's fundamental statement of aims including the sacred Clause IV. In 15 he gained the backing of conference and replaced Clause IV with a new aims and directives. The 118 constitution was the basis of 'Old' Labour, whereas the 15 equivalent was the basis of Blair's 'New' Labour.

By 16 Labour had been out of office longer than any other mainstream left-of-centre party in the Western world. Blair put this situation in simple terms, 'The reason for our decline was simple. We lost touch. Society changed but we did not. Out structures were out of date.' By this time Blair was constructing the rhetoric of the co called 'Third Way'. He saw the twentieth century develop in three key stages

• The first, symbolised by the Labour Constitution of 118, was the growth of the collectivist state. It roots lay in the early twentieth century but it had seemed to have reached notoriety in the post-war world.

• The second stage, which began to emerge in the 170s, but is identified with the Thatcher years, was a reaction to the first stage. There was growing criticism of the overbearing and deadening hand of the 'Nanny state'.

• The third stage Blair saw as moving both beyond the crude individualism of the Thatcherites and the old collectivism of the consensus era. In his own words he claimed, 'My generation stands at the intersection between the old and new.' 'New' Labour wanted to reconcile individualism with community, blending care with enterprise. In place of the inadequacies of state socialism, Blair wished to embrace the fundamental ideas of early ethical socialism including its emphasis on the need of society to act together to achieve what the individual cannot do alone and its advocacy of the use of the power of society to protect and advance the individual and then to apply such ideas to the conditions of modern British society.

For Blair, modern socialism consisted not in a particular form of economic organisation based on public ownership but rather in a collection of values such as community and mutuality which were strengthened by the over-reaching concept of the public interest invoked in support of the individual. The primary task of Labour's new agenda was to translate that concept into practical methods of public action aimed at enhancing the individual's freedom and interests.

The main features of the ideological revision which Blair was advocating as the 'governing philosophy of today's Labour Party have become reasonable clear. They appear to compromise an espousal of the idea of an inclusive community promoting the public interest, a rejection of the elevated status previously ascribed to public ownership, and an unequivocal defence of the merits of a competitive market economy, once regarded by socialists as incompatible with their communitarian beliefs. (Jones, 16).

This was the theory that was peddled just before the 17 general election, and it was no doubt pragmatic to the point of being all things to all men and being New Labour all women too. Whatever the theory behind the pronouncements and changes at the time, there was no doubt that the Labour Party was ready to fight a general election. It also had a clear idea of what it needed to do to win. These factors coincided with one of the most weakened governments of the recent past calling the election itself. The outcome was a resounding victory for New Labour with the largest majority of any party this century.

Please note that this sample paper on Assess the nature of modernisation of the Labour Party since the 1980s and the specific impact of Tony Blair's leadership on the Labour Party modernisation. is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Assess the nature of modernisation of the Labour Party since the 1980s and the specific impact of Tony Blair's leadership on the Labour Party modernisation., we are here to assist you. Your college paper on Assess the nature of modernisation of the Labour Party since the 1980s and the specific impact of Tony Blair's leadership on the Labour Party modernisation. will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Modern Theatre: The Rise of the DirectorBertolt Brecht

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Brecht is one of the greatest influential theorists, but also one of the most misunderstood. To think that Brecht's theatre was fun? Well why not? It was imaginative and intelligent, educational, meaningful and different - the word fun doesn't just relate to escapism and naturalism, but to any type of theatre which engages the audience. Bertolt Brecht first set down his ideas on Epic Theatre in the 10's. Current events, his own upbringing and circumstance helped shape Brecht's personal philosophy and his theory for the stage. In the earlier days, his purpose had been primarily political he had intended to "turn a means of enjoyment into a lesson to be taught, and to transform certain situations from places of entertainment into organs of publicity. Epic theatre evolved as a movement against the naturalist ideas of Stanislavski, which were seen by Brecht as very passive and easy to watch, where the real message of the play was usually ignored by the actors and the audience. Brecht's unique theory of the stage rejected previous theatrical traditions. He created his own style of theatre, which called for an alert, questioning and critical audience. So Brecht developed a range of techniques and devices (which became his distinguishing theatrical features) to intellectually stimulate and politically motivate his audience. A common misunderstanding is that Brecht was more concerned with instruction and education than fun. This is not true. He realised early in his career that audiences still sought out the escapist theatre he had opposed of and as a result was forced to make his theatre entertaining to compete with it. He was, fortunately, a man with an innate understanding of how to entertain and this came through in his plays. He, in fact, believed that entertainment was an undeniable function of the theatre and, like emotion, could never be removed. It must, however, be seen as a requirement, rather than the main objective in an instructional theatre. He never extracted his natural showmanship from his work and indeed the balance between instruction and entertainment became more evident in his work as his career went on.

Brecht defined the word 'epic' as "a sequence of events narrated without artificial restrictions as to time, place, or relevance to a formal plot." Essentially, epic theatre appeals less to the feelings than to the spectators reason, "Instead if sharing an experience the spectator must come to grips with things." Brecht was well aware of the problems in his society (political, social, and economical) and motivated by them, Brecht invented his theatrical features to allow audiences to view real life and real issues. His features included the use of a narrator, a detached acting style, symbolic sets with minimal props and costumes, signs and slogans, songs and exposed lighting. His theatre was based on fact not fantasy. A dialectical structure with a narrative punctuated by commentary in which song, dance, and projected films, stills or photos could alternate with speech. Brecht structured his plays around the term epic which he saw as a narrative not to be tied in to time. In epic theatre human thinking is conditioned by their social situation and will change if that changes. The idea was to make the audience aware of this serious issue and persuade them to try and prevent it. During Brecht's experimenting with theatre, two different ideas were explored, "In my view these experiments were pursued along two lines which occasionally intersected but can none the less be followed separately. They are defined by the two functions of entertainment and instruction that is to say that the theatre organised experiments to increase its ability to amuse, and others which were intended to raise its value as education."

Brecht called his theatre presentational theatre because it aims to present ideas. The interruption of action is one of the principal concerns in epic theatre. "Let us treat the theatre as a place of entertainment, as trues aesthetics should, and let us find out what sort of entertainment appeals to us."

Epic theatre relies on the audience constantly being aware that they are watching a performance. To achieve this, Brecht used one of his most distinguishing theatrical features, alienation. He used the Verfremdungseffect, a term used to describe the theatrical effect by which the familiar is made to appear strange. The aim is that instead of responding emotionally to a performance, the audience members will engage their minds with the subject being presented, "I'm forced here simply to state our belief that we can encourage artistic understanding on the basis of alienation."

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The message was the most important element of the play and Brecht wanted his audience to walk away after the performance having learnt something about the world, and really thing about and analyse the performance they have just seen. Brecht intended to his show his audience the faults within society, and then persuade them to go out and change it, "Nothing is irrelevant to society and it's affairs." The audience was to be like a group of observers watching the events of the performance in a completely detached and logical way. His plays moved in a series of detached scenes, sometimes skipping years and time moving from place to place. This technique, along with Brecht's acting style, disengaged the audience from the performance, thus preventing the audience to feel empathy for the characters. The dialectical sense runs through Brecht's theatre the actor who impersonates the character, yet remains them self; the stage which represents reality, yet remains a stage; the characters who are themselves, yet can be something else.

In Brechtian theatre the actors were not to become involved with their characters. The are simply there to demonstrate the words and actions of his/her character. Brecht described this feature using a car accident, "Even the experience of the driver and the victim is only partially communicated by him (the actor), and by no means tries to turn it into an enjoyable experience for the spectator, however life like he may make his demonstration." Brecht described the actor's role as being like an 'eyewitness' at an accident. At no time should the actor, or his audiences, identify with the character. Emotionally everything must be externalised. Brecht would terminate a scene before it's climax; at appropriate intervals slides could be projected bearing a message, which served to underline the point of the scene.

One of the most important features was Brecht's use of a narrator. He used the narrator to comment on the action, emphasise the main ideas of a scene so that spectators cannot fail to miss them, and to reveal the plot so an audience could spend it's time concentrating on meaning rather than what was to happen next. The epic-device of a narrator who is involved in the action, but who stands apart from the rest by addressing the audience directly, destroys the cosy illusion of naturalistic realism. Brecht also achieved this through historification. He set the current subject matter in the past, removing an illusion from the stage. Film and slides were used in conjunction with or without the narrator to again re-emphasise ideas or plots.

Brecht incorporated other important features to blend in with the disjointed acting style and presentation. One of these features was the use of song, which enabled actors to remind the audience that they are demonstrating not acting. Brecht removed all curiosity by using titles to inform the spectator of the events to come. Brecht decided to make an episode dramatically complete in itself. So the suspense of 'what's going to happen next?' is gone, "In the Threepenny Opera the educative elements were so to speak built in they were not an organic consequence of the whole, but stood in contradiction to it; they broke up the flow of the play and it's incidents, they prevented empathy, they acted as a cold douche for those whose sympathies were becoming involved. I hope that the moralising parts of The Threepenny Opera and the educative songs are reasonably entertaining, but it is certain that the entertainment in question is different from what one gets from the more orthodox scenes. The play has a double nature. Instruction and entertainment conflict openly." The use of titles allows the details and implications of the scene to be seen hand to be more carefully perceived. The simplistic, stylised sets were also used to alienate the audience. Scenery is changed in full view of the audience, reminding the public that it is being staged. Brecht wanted the audience to be constantly aware that they were sitting in a theatre, so he used exposed lighting. The use of harsh white light made the actors on stage look unreal and unnatural. Brecht wanted his spectators to realise that they were in a theatre and at times it was an uncomfortable place to be. The audience could not relate to this, thus creating another form of alienation.

Brecht's main concerns were classism and power, injustice and inequality. Classism and power is used to show the different groups of people within a society, which cause a minority higher group who control and effect the lives of the majority lower group. He based his theatrical productions by his personal feelings. Brecht's productions satirised, questioned and criticised the prejudiced political/social structure of the day and the decay of human and social values. Brecht intensely felt the inequalities of society where those of a higher class were able to use their power to pursue injustice of the lower class. "Enjoyment of learning depends of the class situation. Artistic appreciation depends on ones political attitude, which can accordingly be stimulated and adopted. But even if we restrict ourselves to the section of the audience which agreed politically we see the sharpening of the conflict between ability to entertain and educative value. The more we induced the audience to identify its own experience and feelings with the production, the less it learned; and the more there was to learn, the less the artistic enjoyment." Brecht wanted to bring about social change through the medium of theatre, to challenge people's thinking; arouse their anger so they might improve their world. Each character in The Caucasian Chalk Circle only had one costume, but her the emphasis is always from the minimalistic and is even over the top for the rich/wealthy characters in the play. Thus Brecht has created his own distinguishing theatrical features to emphasise his points. As Brecht once said, "You feel great, but how's the world?"

Brecht Ronald Gray

The Threepenny Opera, with it's mixture of wit, facetious clowning, brash popular numbers, occasional sharp prickings of the audience's conscience, and ultimate vagueness and irresponsibility, to this downright propagation of an ideal. Pg 11

Brecht's view of the function of theatre had changed. It was no longer to be directly political, but rather, as he wrote in the Little Organon of 148, a place which the worker might "enjoy his terrible and never-ending labours as entertainment together with the terrors of his ceaseless transformation." Pg 15

The difficulties have arisen, as will be seen, from the contradictory theories expressed by Brecht at different periods of his life like his plays, his theory changed considerably in exile.

In the earlier days, his purpose had been primarily political he had intended to "turn a means of enjoyment into a lesson to be taught, and to transform certain situations from places of entertainment into organs of publicity. Pg 70

The theatre was to be neither moralising or didactic; it was merely to detach itself from the classical models that had suited former ages, and produce entertainment adapted to our own age. In other words, it was to be a theatre scientific in mood. At this point, Brecht ran into a certain amount of self contradiction. Pg 71

Picasso has explained his own policy in art in terms closely similar to Brecht's. "My Landscapes," he writes, "are exactly like my nudes and my still lifes; but with faces people see the nose is crooked, whereas nothing shocks them about a bridge. But I drew this 'crooked nose' on purpose. I did what was necessary to force people to see a nose. Later on they saw - or they will see - that the nose isn't crooked at all. What I had to do was to stop them from going on seeing only 'beautiful harmonies' or 'exquisite colour'.

To Brecht and Beyond

By the end of the 10's, Brecht had in his lyrics and dramas, as well as in his theoretical writing, recognised that his own work was also pleasurable - if pleasure were no longer opposed to learning.

The time has come to give art, by a pitiless method, the precision of the natural sciences. But the principal difficulty for me is still the style, the indefinable Beauty resulting from the conception itself.

(Flaubert, Correspondence) pg 11

Brecht called the greatest art - the art of living.

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A THEOLOGY OF SUFFERING

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A THEOLOGY OF SUFFERING OR JESUS HEALS TODAY

The theology of suffering always coexists with a powerless and ineffective church which apologizes for its lack of power with mystery and intellectualism. And it produces a powerless and ineffective church. One writer commented on this mind set of suffering.

The will of God has been a deep shadow ... obscuring ... blessing with its decrees of sorrow .... The will of God is associated with sick rooms, poverty, loss. bereavement, funerals, the open grave. The will of God, to such has are schooled in this mind set], is always dressed in black. And this conception of His will gives us sickly Christians, weak faith, empty joy. puny, conquests .... When we say in prayer. Thy will be done, are we always impressed with its significance? Gods will is not ... vindictive ... His will is a blessed companion, which illumines our way, cheers our spirits, makes glad our lives and brings fruitfulness to all that we do (Pentecostal Theology, p. 7 7).

This thinking robs evangelism of its most effective and compelling witness. Healings are powerful, authenticating both the message and the messenger of the gospel.

Help with essay on A THEOLOGY OF SUFFERING

Matthew 816-17 When evening had come, they brought to Him many who were demon-possessed. And He cast out the spirits with a word, and healed all who were sick,17 that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Isaiah the prophet, saying He Himself took our infirmities And bore our sicknesses. NKJV

I. DIVINE COMMISSION

When Jesus commissioned the disciples; he told them to heal the sick in the houses into which they were received, saying to them The Kingdom of God has come near you (Lk 10).

The issue of faith is of great importance in healing. Jesus said, Your faith that has made you whole, 1) to the woman with the issue of blood, ) to the leper who returned and gave thanks and ) to blind Bartimaeus. People came to Jesus for healing and requested it. Even the man at the Pool of Bethesda was not healed until Jesus had asked him. Do you want to be made well? In fact, as far as we know, He healed only the one in that vast place filled with the infirm.

Paul, preaching at Lystra. perceived a lame man who had been listening to him had faith to be healed. Paul then commanded him in a loud voice to stand to his feet (which he had never done) and the man leaped to his feet and walked (Acts 148 10).

All things are possible to those who believe (Mk ); if we have faith in God anything is possible (Nu 11 4); and Jesus makes clear that faith is necessary even if it is only the size of a mustard seed (Lk 176). We must pointedly preach about mans condition before God and lay out Gods requirements of repentance and faith. We included Gods promises to the believer and how Jesus had paid the price for sin in His atoning sacrifice.

Healing was never presented as just prance in sick and prance out healed.

The issue today, as always, is one of believing God. God helped only one widow woman, and healed only one leper (Naaman) in the days of the prophets. The issue was not need. It was faith. Having a need has never been enough. God is not moved by need…if that were true all who needed money would be blessed and all who were sick would be healed.

Many prayers are not prayers of faith. Many will add, If it be thy will, to the end of their prayer. This is the standard Bible school prayer. This is actually a prayer of unbelief. Consider that to pray and receive you have to know the will of God… Jesus was asked once, "If you can do any thing have compassion on us and heal us…He responded, "If you had faith…etc."

The if" nullifies faith in almost every realm. The Bible clearly teaches the will of God and His commission to heal the sick. Believers are to use this knowledge and move in authority against sickness and disease. Hosea' says God's people are destroyed for a lack of knowledge.

Jesus, called His twelve disciples together and, after giving them power and authority over diseases, sent them to preach and to heal the sick (Luke 1 ), saying to the them, The kingdom of God has come near to you (Luke 10). To the healed leper Jesus said, Arise, go your way. Your faith has made you well (Luke 171).

Once you discover the believers authority in Christ, it changes how you pray.

II. THE SPIRITUAL NATURE OF DISEASE

In the Bible record of healing, we see clearly the intertwining of the spiritual, physical and demonic. Lukes gospel documents Jesus casting out an unclean spirit, rebuking a fever (physical disease), and speaking to and commanding demons which came out of people (41 41). Jesus is dealing with spiritual forces as personalities, not as germs. He deals with them as enemies, not as benefactors. Matthew calls these spiritual powers "tormentors", not comforters (185). They are realities, not superstitions. They are direct demonic links to disease and are somehow able to exercise a tangible dominion over a persons body and life.

Medical researchers have confirmed in many different ways that chronic feelings of hopelessness or unforgiveness can affect the immune system. Holding, retaining, grasping and nurturing bitterness and resentment releases a hormone which suppresses the activity of the immune system and makes man susceptible to disease. Upwards of 85% of those visiting doctors do so because of guilt and shame. People working with chronic pain sufferers, especially lower back pain, point out that much of the pain is related to stress. Current research is bringing to light many such connections between health and spiritual factors.

I am convinced that it is the spiritual issues which are most important in healing.

Proverbs 1814 The spirit of a man will sustain him in sickness, But who can bear a broken spirit? NKJV

Proverbs 17 A merry heart does good, like medicine, But a broken spirit dries the bones.

III. THE ROLE OF THE DEVIL

James says that "the life of the body is the spirit. So long as that life, or spirit, remains in the body, the body continues to live. But as soon as the spirit leaves the body, the body is dead; it decays and returns to the dust.

Many human sicknesses and diseases begin from a tiny germ, an evil satanic life, sent to live in and possess the host body and destroy it. As long as that life, the spirit of infirmity, exists in the body, the growth or disease lives and continues its destructive work.

But as soon as the evil spirit, the evil life, or spirit of infirmity, has been cast out of the body in Jesus name, that disease or growth is dead. It will decay and pass from the body. This is the process of healing.

It is my firm conviction that the devil is the author and perpetrator of all disease. Disease had its opportunity in the Fall of Man and exists as incipient (initial, embryonic) death. Prior to the Fall there was neither disease nor death. No injury, accident or illness was able to strike man until he fell and became vulnerable because of sin. With the Fall came the curse and accident, injury, sickness, weakness and infirmity, all foreshadowing death which came upon all. Physical death is a shadow of spiritual death. All sickness is energized by a spirit of death. Man is a being composed of spirit, soul, and body. He is not primarily a physical being with a spirit but rather a spiritual being inhabiting a physical body. This is not merely words. It is necessary to change our thinking on this issue. This will change the way you deal with the sick.

IV. MAN HAS DOMINION

God gave man dominion with a condition. Disobedience brought death. A clear connection exists between sin and sickness, which is incipient death.

Then the LORD God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to tend and keep it. And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat, but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die (Ge 15 17).

A. THE PROMISE OF HEALING

And the LORD will take away from you all sickness, and will afflict you with none of the terrible diseases of Egypt which you have known, but will lay them on all those who hate you (Deu 715).

A sound heart is life to the body, But envy is rottenness to the bones (Prov 140).

Surely He has borne our griefs And earned our sorrows; Yet we esteemed Him stricken, Smitten by God, and afflicted. But He was wounded for our transgressions, He was bruised for our iniquities; The chastisement for our peace was upon Mm, And by His stripes we are healed (Isa 54 5).

And He said to them,

Go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature. He who believes and is baptized will be saved; but he who does not believe will be condemned. And these signs will follow those who believe In My name they will cast out demons; they will speak with new tongues; they will take up serpents; and if they drink anything deadly, it will by no means hurt them; they will lay hands on the sick, and they will recover. So then, after the Lord had spoken to them, He was received up into heaven, and sat down at the right hand of God. And they went out and preached everywhere, the Lord working with them and confirming the word through the accompanying signs. Amen (Mark 1615 0).

Is anyone among you suffering? Let him pray. Is anyone cheerful? Let him sing psalms. Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven (James 5115).

B. GOD WANTS ME HEALED!

The necessary revelation is simply, God wants me well. One writer put it The devil wants you begging; Jesus wants you living. The devil wants you crawling; Jesus wants you walking. The devil wants you whining; Jesus wants you dining. The devil wants you down; Jesus wants you up. The enemy is the devil.

God is not punishing with sickness. At the root of all sickness is the devil. He gives energy and power to all disease and infirmity. The Bible is Gods self revelation. In its pages we learn how to relate to and approach God in obedience to his revealed will and not according to our feelings, moods or human reasoning. The lack of power in many churches is because many are unaware of who God is and how to approach Him. They have lost the revelation of The Lord Our Healer and the truth of Jesus dynamic healing ministry someone has counted twenty seven miracles attributed to Jesus in the Scripture as well as ten occasions of general healing in large numbers of people with a wide variety (every kind) of diseases. Jesus, never passive about sickness, treated it as the enemy. There are two primary hindrances to treating those who are sick.

First is ignorance concerning the will of God.

Lilian Yeomans said, I believe that one of the greatest hindrances to healing is the absence of a certain definite knowledge as to Gods will. There is lurking in most everyone a feeling that God may not be willing, that we have to persuade Him to heal us.

Secondly, we tend to be very passive about disease and infirmity. There is a reluctance to believe and aggressively pursue healing.

V. AGGRESSIVE CONFRONTATION

Jesus makes aggressive action a necessary ingredient for kingdom living, saying

...from the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven suffers violence, and the violent take it by force (Mat 111).

Likewise in Luke, The law and the prophets were until John. Since that time the kingdom of God has been preached, and everyone is pressing into it (1616).

Aggressive, or violent, action in the company of faith pleases God and he anoints it.

See how ... God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power, who went about doing good and healing all who were oppressed by the devil, for God was with Him (Acts 108).

Importantly, Jesus heals because he God The Healer. He does not heal as some special event but because it is His nature.

A. JESUS BORE OUR SICKNESSES

The language and context of Isaiah's great Messianic prophecy clearly point to Jesus actually carrying our sicknesses and diseases. In His death, and shed blood, is provision for physical healing as part of salvation.

Surely He has borne our griefs And carried our sorrows; Yet we esteemed Him stricken, Smitten by God, and afflicted. But He was wounded for our transgressions, He was bruised for our iniquities; The chastisement for our peace was upon Him, And by His stripes we are healed (Isa 54 5).

Matthew applies this prophecy directly to the healing ministry of Jesus. They brought to Him many who were demon possessed. And He cast out the spirits with a word, and healed all who were sick, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Isaiah the prophet, saying He Himself took our infirmities And bore our sicknesses (Mat 816 17). Peter also uses this scripture, only he applies it to believers. [Jesus] bore our sins in Ms own body on the tree, that we, having died to sins, might live for righteousness; by whose stripes you were healed (I Pet 4). The story of the leper ties the nature of God together with his willingness. Jesus, moved with compassion, stretched out His hand and touched him, and said to him, I am willing; be cleansed (Mark 141).

Please note that this sample paper on A THEOLOGY OF SUFFERING is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on A THEOLOGY OF SUFFERING, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on A THEOLOGY OF SUFFERING will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Should assylum seakers be able to styay in australia

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Good morning chairperson, ladies and gentlemen. I am the first speaker for the affirmative team, Erin is the second and Cassie is the third.

The definition of asylum seeker is a person seeking protection in another country but not yet officially considered as a refugee by the government. A refugee is one who flees from invasion or political danger.

· When a person steps foot in Australia they are entitled to seek rights through the court system and this is why the government has sent the asylum seekers to other countries such as New Guinea and Nauru.

· Asylum seekers are not illegal, a person is entitled under international laws to seek asylum from persecution in another country.Order College Papers on should assylum seakers be able to styay in australia

· Australia needs to stop stereotyping asylum seekers and embrace them as people with the same needs as anyone else.

· There is nothing fair about locking up hundreds of children, women and men without charge or review by a court simply because they lack a visa especially when the vast majority of the people who are detained are later found to be genuine refugees and are eligible to stay in Australia.

· There is nothing fair about labeling asylum seekers as "queue jumpers" when there was no queue they could of joined in the first place.

· These are traumatized people who have witnessed death, murder and terror on a huge scale who are looking for a safe place to live.

· What is so wrong about wanting to improve your life and the lives of your children, are not many of the asylum seekers who come from countries where they're devoted to their own.

· About one third of asylum seekers are living in detention and the other two thirds are living in the community. These people should be allowed to stay in Australia depending on the results of their applications. They should be at least entitled to basic human rights including quality health care.

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Business management

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1. (0 points) Managers require a wide variety of skills. Not all types of skills, however, are equally important at all levels of management. For the following three types of skills, identify the level of management (top management, middle management, or front line management) for which the skill is most important and why you think it is most important for that level.

• Technical skills

Technical skills are most important in front line management. When I complete my BBA with an emphasis in management I don't expect to go to work managing a chemistry lab at M. Although I may be an excellent manager, I would have no idea how to guide the chemists in their work. I could, however go to work as a construction site foreman for xxx, a national construction firm. I could use my knowledge about which construction materials are needed, how they are put together and my management skills to lead and develop the crew's construction skills.

• Conceptual skills Conceptual skills are important to top level management. If I were the CEO of xxx I would not want to worry about the day to day operations of each individual construction site. I would not need to know much about construction or even which end of a hammer to use. I would need to have extensive knowledge of how my organization's parts fit together and what this makes it capable of. I would use this knowledge to develop a vision for where I would lead xxx and make it capable of expanding into these areas of the construction market.

• Communications skills

Communication skills are important in absolutely every level of management. Management is coordinating the activities of people to get work done that you cannot do your self. To do this you have to effectively communicate what you want done to the people doing it for you. This is true for front line management to communicate to labor what needs to be done for the day to get the next phase of construction done, middle management to communicate to the frontline managers to coordinate the construction of the entire building complete and for top management to communicate to the middle managers who are setting up operations on the east coast so that we can start bidding on projects in the growing construction market there. Each level must effectively communicate to and receive communication from the level below it to successfully direct it in the way you want it to go.

. (0 points) For years, the tuna canning companies bought tuna from fishing boats that caught and killed dolphins (the mammal) as a "by-catch." Some years back, this practice was brought to light by activists, which caused an uproar among the public. Threats of boycotts against the companies ensued and there was substantial negative publicity. Fearing a loss of revenues, most tuna canning companies adopted a policy of not purchasing from boats that engaged in this practice. To communicate this policy to the public, the companies put a small logo on their cans of tuna guaranteeing that they were "dolphin-friendly." Using the authors' terminology, what level of social responsibility would you ascribe to the tuna canning companies? Justify your answer.

Considering that the tuna canning companies put the "dolphin friendly" seal on the cans of tuna in response to a threatened boycott originated by the International Marine Mammal Project and the negative publicity that ensued, I would ascribe to them the Social Reaction level of social responsibility.

Tuna fishermen used to actually look for dolphins and set their purse seine around them because for unknown reasons the tuna stay close to the dolphins. Canners such as Starkist, Chicken of the Sea and Bumblebee all knew that this fishing method was being utilized, and would have been classified as "social responsiveness" had they stopped before public outcry forced them to.

I think that this level has changed since then. Congress passed legislation setting a standard of non-encirclement of dolphins which became the U.S. legal standard for the Dolphin Safe tuna label. Because of this they are required to follow this standard and now are at the "social obligation" level. The tuna industry has also adopted another method of catching tuna that have adverse environmental effects. This is called "log fishing" where all marine life including turtles, sharks, and other animals are caught along with the tuna. The canners know the effect this has on sea life but continue. Until they voluntarily quit this type of practice before they are forced to by either social or legal obligations they will never be a socially responsive industry.

. (0 points) Describe the following concepts or terms. Where do these concepts or terms come from and to what do they apply?

All four of these concepts come from Geert H. Hofstede and his work on four dimensions of cultural variability, commonly referred to as Hofstedes Dimensions. Hofstede originally published these concepts in his 180 publication, Cultures consequences International differences in work-related values. This study took existing survey data (sample size of 116,000) collected from a multinational corporation. The result was a score in each of the dimensions for 40 different countries. Hofstede calculated scores for these dimensions (on a scale from around 0 and 100) for many countries.

• Power Distance

Power Distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. Power distance can be described in terms of high and low power distance. In a high power distance culture people are subordinate than in a low power distance culture. In a high power distance culture such as China, employees would never expect to be consulted about a task; they just do what the supervisor asks. China has a power distance score of 80. Israel has a very low power distance score of 1. In this culture supervisors would be expected to be very democratic and take input from subordinates on decisions.

• Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is how comfortable a culture feels about the unknown. Cultures with higher uncertainty avoidance express a need for formality, predictability and clear rules so that there is no question about how things are done. They also have more anxiety when faced with situations where the unknown is a factor. Denmark has very low uncertainty avoidance at while Japan's is very high at .

• Individualism versus Collectivism

In individualistic societies there are few ties between the members of that society whereas in collectivist societies people belong to strong, cohesive groups. The United States, as we know, is very individualistic. We are actually the most individualistic society with a score of 1. We could not care less what others think, we will do whatever we please. Many Asian countries tend to see themselves as a part of the whole. Some examples of these are Taiwan and South Korea who have individuality scores of 14 and 18. This is one of many reasons for the rapid economic rise of these countries in the last century. They work as a collective to effectively accomplish a task that a number of individuals could not.

• Masculinity versus Femininity

As you said in class, this has nothing to do with gender; it has to do with the aggressiveness of culture. More aggressive cultures are considered more masculine and more passive cultures are considered more feminine. In a more masculine culture people are assertive, tough, and concerned with material success. In a more feminine society people are more modest, tender, interested in the quality of life and display very little confrontation.

Austria is very masculine at 7 and Denmark is more feminine at 16

All of these concepts are important to keep in mind when dealing with other cultures.

4. (0 points) In the Boston Consulting Group Portfolio Matrix, the preferred action when dealing with a cash cow is to dedicate just enough resources to keep it going but not engage in any meaningful investment in the unit. What is the reasoning behind this strategy?

This is because you have a situation where one of your strategic business units is experiencing low market growth rate and high relative market share. Now that I have learned what a cash cow is in this class I realize that my former employer is a cash cow and is an excellent example for this paper. xxx Fuel is part of a larger organization that includes other fuel companies and barging outfits. I worked for them for 7 years and in that time we took over most of the residential, commercial and marine fuel market share in xxx. The only competition has just enough of the market to keep others from coming in to compete. We set up the local infrastructure such as storage tanks that enable us to get the cheapest fuel possible, warehouses to store resale items and maintenance facilities to keep everything running. Everything is as efficient as possible and there is no more room to grow so any further investment would be pointless. The larger organization can use the cash generated in xxx to invest in strategic business units where they have a high market growth rate and high market share which would be considered a star.

5. (0 points) Explain the phenomenon known as "heightened commitment" or "escalation of commitment." Why does this occur and how might you as a senior manager avoid it in your company?

This is a situation where you become increasingly committed to a poor choice of action. This can occur if emotion becomes involved in your decision making or if a project is fundamentally flawed and it is not realized right away. You may have a project that is your "pet" and you want it to work so badly that you keep "pouring good money after bad" in an attempt to make it work. I saw a good example of this on TV the other day. A sex education instructor had what she thought was a great idea. She sewed a small pocket into a pair of underwear that was to contain a condom. She figured that if it was right there when it was needed it was more likely to be used. Her students thought it was a great idea and were supportive so she invested twenty thousand dollars into producing a bunch of this underwear. She got some interest from small clothing outlets but was rejected by large distributors because it was too risqu. (Possibly like this example!) She wanted it to work so badly that she ended up investing one hundred thousand dollars into it, but still not many people wanted to buy it. She poured good money after bad because her emotional involvement in wanting to increase condom use caused her to invest more money in a product that had little appeal to consumers.

If I were a senior manager I would avoid this in the following ways First I would instruct my project leaders to keep emotions separate from decision making. Secondly, I would set goals for a project which if they are not met by a certain time the plug will automatically be pulled. Lastly, I would have one person start the project, then have another carry it from there, the second will be more likely to have an objective view of its success or failure. The woman in my example should have done more market research by contacting distributors to gauge their interest and use focus groups made up of her target market that have no bias toward her product.

Bonus Question (5 points) What are the advantages and disadvantages of group or participatory decision-making?

Personally I like to make important decisions on my own. If I just consider all of the facts that I can and make the decision I save myself a lot of frustration. The hardest part of involving a group to make a decision is to deal with their dynamics. If everyone would focus on the question at hand it would make the process easier. I was the president of the Cooperative Preschool last school year. I was the only male there and it was very hard to get a bunch of moms to focus on the task at hand. I decided to grin and bear it and chalk it up to leadership experience. It would take a lot of time to get a simple decision during a ½ hour long 1 hour meeting because it was hard to fit important topics in between the conversations about quilting and stuff. There was one woman, the treasurer, who had a very strong personality. Everyone was afraid to make a decision if she wasn't there and when she was there she tried to dominate the meeting. I had to do some careful stepping to make sure that she did not have undue influence on our decisions. It is very hard to get the right mix of talents when your talent pool is the parents who happen to enroll their kids in the preschool that year. I did my best and tried to get the right personalities in the right positions.

It may sound like this was a bad experience but, no way, it was a great experience. I learned that I cannot always make all of the decisions and that if I included others they were generally more accepted. All of the moms, and me, put our heads together, brought our individual talents to bear, and made some great decisions like getting xxx to help us get all new tables, chairs, play equipment and learning materials. I learned that I did not always have all of the information necessary to make a proper decision. Once I wanted to have the accounting done professionally, and almost did it before I decided that the entire board should make this call. A parent told us that she knew someone who would donate accounting services to us. I did not have that information! Being president of the preschool was beneficial to me and the other parents because we all developed lasting relationships and learned much about decision making.

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Pols

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Strategic Behavior in Congress falls between two broad categories

Choices involving the writing and enacting of legislation

Choices that set up congressional rules and institutions

Distributive Proposals legislation that funds the construction of roads, buildings, and other projects. Often described as wasteful because they are spending gov money on little projects that are of little use to anyone.

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18 Transportation Equity Act for the 1st Century ("TEA-1")

~Funded over $50 Billion worth of road projects.

~Described as "tasty highway pork"

~Pork-filled, election year plum for member of congress."

~Some of these projects' benefits are less than the costs.

~Overwhelming majority of house members and senators voted for it.

Legislators favor distributive proposals because delivering these benefits to constituents increases their chances of re-election.

Expanding Distributive proposals ensures that every legislator who wants to claim credit has the opportunity to do so.

• Constituents support their efforts because if they don't, pork barrel proposals will be enacted w/o providing them with anything.

• Districts of legislators will receive projects and pay a share of the costs.

• Districts of legislators outside the coalition will pay some but get no projects.

Committee Deference why rational legislators let committee members to dominate the legislative process for proposals within their committee's jurisdiction.

Committee members not experts seen as a source of information and advice to colleagues not on the committee.

~House members allow them to decide things for them

• Deference is a way for legislators to implement a trade or deal, where they allow colleagues on other committees to act as they see fit in return for the same authority when their own committee considers a proposal.

• Occurs because members are assigned to high-salience committees with this information-sharing goal in mind.

For committees that deal with highly salient, controversial proposals, deference is a way for committee members to share their expertise and information with their colleagues.

• Rational Legislators defer to the members of high-salience committee because these groups were deliberately constructed to function as information sources for the rest of congress.

~~~Distributive Proposals spend federal tax revenue on projects that benefit specific town, cities, or localities.

They are often called "pork-barrel projects" and are seen as a wasteful, inferior way to spend government money.

- Projects/programs are the kind of appropriation that gets mentioned on talk radio or by television comedians because they are SILLY.

• NASA"s new space station "orbiting pork-barrel"

• "Politicians are the same all over they promise to make bridges all over when there are no rivers."

Pork barrel supply benefits

• Supply benefits to as many congressional districts as possible.

• Once supplied to a majority of districts leading to majority leaders to vote for the proposal and enact it!

Distributive proposals like TEA -1 have TWO things in COMMON

• Voter benefits only if the distributive proposal funds a project near where the voter lives.

• A legislator's support is generally tied to whether the measure provides something for her district.

How do rational legislators construct a distributive proposal?

• these proposals will deliver benefits to a bare majority of legislators "minimum winning legislation"

• Will supply benefits to as many districts as possible, with no attempt to limit the size or the cost of the proposal. "universalism"

Minimum winning legislation

• Theory of minimum winning coalitions states that in a legislature that enacts proposals using the majority rule, the authors of a proposal should aim at attracting support from only a bare majority of legislators no more no less.

• Adding more projects only increases the total cost of the proposal.

• The logic is explained as a PIE

• Gives you the largest piece and at the same time receives enough votes to be enacted.

Distributive proposals

• Theory predicts that the distributive proposals will be enacted by minimum wining coalitions.

Universalism

• The problem with predicting that distributive proposals will be enacted by minimum winning coalitions is that the theory doesn't match reality.

• Legislators try to deliver benefits to as many districts as possible - EVEN if they have to increase costs.

• CREDIT CLAIMING increases constituents' evaluations of their member's performance in office and thereby increases the member's chances of reelection

• A member's ability to claim credit has nothing to do with how many of her colleagues are also able to do so.

• Members evaluate distributive proposals in terms of credit claiming and PREFER universalism.

The key feature of pork-barrel proposals is that they provide opportunities for everyone to claim credit where one member's ability to claim credit doesn't in any way reduce his or her colleagues from doing so.

Universalism NORM it defuses opposition.

• Expanding the size of distributive proposals minimizes the number of legislators who might use delaying or publicity tactics.

• Universalism expands the number of legislators who want the proposal enacted so they can claim credit.

Legislators can only claim credit when constituents are happy.

KEY

• Voters are mis-informed about the benefits and costs of distributive proposals.

• Constituents underestimate the costs, and will reward their legislator.

• There is pressure to deliver!

• Rationality does not ensure favorable consequences.

• Credit claiming is reduced by formulas for budgets, and for formula-based allocations is extremely difficult.

Foreign Aid

• Nothing to claim credit for no attention given.

The drive to create opportunities for credit claiming can turn small experimental programs into large, expensive "boondoggles."

Model Cities 160's

• Intended to fund 5-10 projects to find a way to prevent the decay of central cities.

• Instead it was expanded and all of the ideas for this project instead was spread out in cities all over instead on centralizing the money to serve the project better.

• Expanded programs become substitutes for actions that local governments or the private sector would have taken in any case.

Emergency Spending bills in congress

• Designed to help communities after a natural disaster often balloon into catch all bulls that fund a wide range of problems.

• Once members know a bill will be passed they jump on the band wagon and try to get things for their districts included in the bill.

Woodrow Wilson

• In his doctoral dissertation wrote, "Congress on the floor is congress on display; congress in committee is congress at work."

• Committees are the heart

• Committee members plan and manage floor debate

When members of a committee report a new proposal to the full house for consideration, legislators who are not on the committee defer to the wishes and opinions of committee members.

• Deference implies that members accept an argument and approve a proposal even if they know nothing about it.

• Problem with deference giving up your decision-making power to a small group within the congress.

The House of Representatives is supposed to operate with a majority 50 percent plus one to pass things.

Why Deference?

• Two classes of committees

o Low salience deals with programs and policies that few legislators consider interesting or important

o High salience deals with issues of national importance.

The primary function of congressional committees is to develop legislative proposals for consideration by the entire House.

LOW-SALIENCE

Science committee

• Devise an annual budget for each of the agencies and programs in their jurisdiction, deal with new policy proposals that are referred to them, hold hearings on policy questions, and construct their own policy initiatives.

• Confirm the low salience description label attached to them.

• Salience is a measure of worry and importance that a person cares about something.

• Low salience is a perfect setting for deference, with trades between members.

Two reasons House members defer on low salience committees

1. Not interested

. Unspoken agreement where members trade away influence over issues they don't care about in return for being allowed extra influence over the issues they consider important.

Anyone who wants to be on a low-salience committee gets to be.

Unwritten provisions on deference

• The most important is that committees can not expect deference if they propose things that are extreme or extravagant.

High Salience Committees

Mechanisms that facilitate deference on low salience congressional committees will not work on high-salience ones.

EX Ways and Means Comm., Appropriations Comm.

High salience jurisdictions involve almost all members and they have strong preferences on them. IMPORTANT issues.

• Legislators not on committees are unwilling to let others make decisions on such important issues, and they get more involved.

• Committee members are experts on a specific topic.

• Procedures used to assign members to high salience committees facilitate deference, and create committees of experts who supply information on certain proposals.

• Deference on the floor is rewarded for good behavior and careful assignments.

170 appropriations committee

Deference was the norm.

Late 160's

• Informal rules governing assignments to this committee broke down.

• Members could no longer be sure that the appropriations committee would carry out its assigned task, viewed as biased towards personal interests in gov monies.

• Power to determine the size of the federal budget was given to a new committee the BUDGET COMMITTEE is born!

• Deference declines …..

Committee Deference

Members of the house of reps allow congressional committee members to dominate the writing of policy proposals within their jurisdiction.

Two reasons

• One that applies to low salience committees, and one to high.

• Low personal interests, relevant to their constituents.

• High goal of the committee representative, and can spend money on research and experts, investigations.

Deference is a rational choice facilitates trade across jurisdictions, where legislators can focus on jurisdictions that interest them.

SEPERATION OF POWERS AND THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Fundamental institution of America's national government

• The separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches.

• Once legislation is enacted the implementation is the job of the bearcats.

• The separation of writing laws and the implementation of them creates a NEW TASK for the members of congress

o Oversight or determining whether bureaucratic actions are consistent with the intent of the laws they were given to implement.

The Power of the Veto

Checks and Balances

• No federal government can make policy by itself.

• The veto power translates this principle into concrete rules and procedures.

Two distinct procedures for enacting laws

• A proposal receives a simple majority in the house and the senate, plus the president's consent.

• A proposal receives a majority vote in congress, and presidential veto, and then passage though both houses by two thirds vote.

• IMPORTANT president has ten days to act otherwise the bill becomes a law automatically.

• The president's power to veto makes him an equal partner to the legal process.

First mover advantage

• Members of congress have this when a president considers a bill because he can either sign the legislation into a law or veto it. Not a lot of le-way for the president.

• Congress can use this to their advantage and include things for their own personal interests and the presidents knowing that he will sign it into action and reap their benefits from giving a little to him!

• Veto threat influences the kinds of policies that are enacted in the House and Senate.

• The power of the president's veto is seriously affected by the size of the congressional coalition in favor of a piece of legislation, the president's intentions, and the timing in a congressional session.

• When there is majority in both houses but not a two thirds majority the PRESIDENTIAL vote is crucial.

Congressional Oversight

• Congressional Oversight three reasons

o Oversight is lax, power flows from the legislative branch to the executive.

o The systematic investigation of government programs by legislators and their staffs.

o Comparing intent to implications, and is the job of bureaucracy,(study laws and loop holes and find ways implement limits on the interpretation of the laws.)

Problems with relying on bureaucrats

• Do the bureaucrats have it right? Do they misinterpret the laws goals?

• Implementing congressional goals or their own?

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