Personnel Management and Human Resource Management

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Personnel Management

Personnel Management with its narrow focus on administration, reactive behavior and severance from the management mainstream - lacked top management support and made itself vulnerable to irrelevance amidst the business and organizational changes. From its traditional association with provision of welfare, policy interpretation and corporate police function, it thus justifies the notion of personnel managements image as a bureaucratic nuisance.

What Is Human Resource Management?

Human Resource Management (HRM) involves the productive use of people in achieving the organizations strategic business objectives and the satisfaction of individual employee needs. As HRM seeks to strategically integrate the interests of an organization and its employees, it can be a major contributor to the success of an enterprise because its positional influences can affect customers, business results and ultimately shareholder value. Effective HRM stays relevant to the business as a function by aligning its objectives with the organizational business goals and rewarding through achievement of performance based objectives.

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Definitions of Human Resource and Personnel Management

David Guest, a British academic, in his 18 Personnel Management (January) journal, questioned the difference between HRM and personnel management. An answer to this question was provided by Torrington and Hall (11) who suggested that personnel management is workforce centered and therefore directs itself to employees, while HRM is resource centered and concerns itself with the overall human resource needs of the organization.

An early comment on this question was made by Armstrong (187)

HRM is regarded by some personnel managers as just a set of initials or old wine in new bottles. It could indeed be no more and no less than another name for personnel management, but as usually perceived, at least it has the virtue for emphasizing the virtue of treating people as a key resource, the management of which is the direct concern of top management as part of the strategic planning processes of the enterprise. Although there is nothing new in the idea, insufficient attention has been paid to it in many organizations. The new bottle or label can help to overcome that deficiency.

HRM could be described as an approach to, rather than as an alternative to, traditional personnel management. When comparing HRM and personnel management, more similarities emerge than differences. However, concepts such as strategic integration, culture management, commitment, total quality, and investing in human capital, together with a unitary philosophy (the interests of management and employees coincide), are essential parts of the HRM model. And this model fits the way in which organizations have to do business and manage their resources in the environments in which they now exist. This realism of the HRM model increased the popularity of the usage of the term HR as an alternative to personnel management.

Increasingly, human resources have been seen as the competitive edge essential for a company to be successful. Managers adopt a strategic management of human resources by moving their human resource needs in line with the business needs of the future, i.e. they support the companys strategies.

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT AND HRM

HRM, in contrast to personnel management, is characterized by

q emphasis on employees as valued resource and a critical investment to increase the competitive edge of each organization

q integration and alignment of HRM objectives with the overall organizational business objectives and strategies

q a proactive stance towards HRM challenges especially in the arena of change management amidst business changes

q an emphasis on a direct approach to satisfying the individual needs of each employee

q stress on the importance of organizational culture and values in promoting cohesiveness and unity of employees, of creating and maintaining a culture which is consistent with organizational objectives

q the assumption of a unitary model of industrial relations instead of a pluralist model underpinning traditional personnel management

q a shift and sharing of responsibility for HRM with line managers, with HRM adopting a role of service provider rather than staff specialists

The 1st century human resource imperative is to raise the companys human capital to sophisticated levels which produce competitive advantages for the enterprise. Human resources can accomplish only if it dramatically redefines itself from administrator, reactor, and bureaucrat to strategist, businessperson, and marketer.

APPROACHES TO HRM

While HRM professionals and line managers are responsible for ensuring that employees are managed in such a way as to facilitate achievement of organizational objectives, the policies and practices they initiate will be affected by the organizations values and philosophy - and by the values and beliefs managers have about employees. There are two organizational approaches to managing staff instrumental (or hard) approach that stresses the rational, quantitative and strategic aspects of managing human resources; the humanistic (or soft) approach, which emphasizes employee development, collaboration, participation, trust and informed choice in order to generate resourceful employees/contributors to the organizations strategic business objectives. The hard approach essentially views employees as cost which needs to be used efficiently. This performance oriented hard approach creates industrial conflicts due to the emphasis on individual performance. The soft approach views employees as an asset which needs to be invested in and developed.

In some organizations, both hard and soft approaches guide the development and implementation of HR policies. These organizations have identified core employees (for example, employees who deliver the essential service or product of the organization) who are likely to be offered security of employment, attractive compensation and benefits, and career development opportunities. Non-core employees have limited, if any, job security, compensation held to minimum levels, and limited, if any, career development opportunities. Non-core employees are likely to be unskilled or semi-skilled workers (that is, employees who can fairly readily be replaced) or workers who may undertake activities which can be outsourced.

Both hard and soft approaches to HRM are unitarist in nature. In other words, HRM posits a relationship between the organization (employer) and employees as one characterized by one locus of power (management), shared objectives (that is, managerial and employee objectives are congruent or if not congruent, compatible), and conflict is aberrant. In other words, management knows what is best for employees - even when it hurts.

HRM Types

Technician

Personnel administrator safeguarding company interests through corporate policing.

Welfare Worker

Relationship based with concentration on social, welfare and clerical activities, leaving all key HRM activities for line management.

Theoretician

Concerned with the professional status of HRM through emphasis on theories and professionally interesting activities.

Professional

Business driven, change catalyst, concentrates on value added HR activities that enhances competitive advantage.

HRM and Industrial Relations

The business oriented, proactive and unitarist HRM approach contrasts with the traditional industrial relations approach, which seems narrow, pessimistic and static.

A New Mandate for Human Resources

It has been stated by Ulrich (18) that 'The activities of HR appear to be and often are disconnected from the real work of the organization'. He believes that HR 'should not be defined by what it does but by what it delivers'. According to Ulrich, HR can deliver excellence in four ways

THE NEW ROLE OF HR MANAGERS

Strategic Partner

HR should become a partner with senior and line managers in strategy execution, helping to improve planning from the conference room to the marketplace. Consequently, the HR manager must develop business acumen, a customer orientation and an awareness of the competition to be able to link business strategy to HR policies and practices.

Administrative Expert

It should become an expert in the way work is organized and executed, delivering administrative efficiency to ensure that costs (efficiency) are reduced while quality (effectiveness) is maintained. HR professionals must be able to re-engineer HR activities through the use of technology, process engineering and total quality management.

Employee Champion

It should become a champion for employees, vigorously representing their concerns to senior management and at the same time working to increase employee contribution, that is, employees' commitment to the organization and their ability to deliver results. To enable employees to successfully perform their jobs, HR professionals must be able to represent their interests and find new resources (e.g. become involved in decision making, increase commitments, share in economic gains, etc.

Change Agent

Being a catalyst for change within the organization, the HR manager should lead change in the HR function and develop problem-solving communication and influence skills. It should become an agent of continuous transformation; shaping processes and a culture that together improve an organization's capacity for change.

HRM and Management

Although management as a whole encompasses HRM, HRM is related to all other aspects of management. This is so because the purpose of HRM is to improve the productive contribution of people to the organization in ways that are strategically, ethically, and socially responsible. In order to provide a more value-added role, HRM must evolve from a maintenance role to one, which is more proactive in providing services to enhance competitiveness. The HR department exists to support managers and employees as they pursue the organizations strategies. However, to guide its many activities and support the managers who operate other parts of the organization, HR departments must have objectives.

The Objectives of Human Resource Management

Managers and HR departments achieve their purpose by meeting objectives. Objectives are benchmarks against which actions are evaluated.

Organizational objective

The HR department exists to help managers achieve the objectives of the organization. For example, Hewlett-Packards HR department implemented sophisticated information systems that assisted the department in cost savings of $5 million a year.

Functional objective

To maintain the departments contribution at a level appropriate to the organizations needs. Resources are wasted when HR management is more or less sophisticated than the organization demands.

Societal objective

To be ethically and socially responsive to the needs and challenges of society while minimizing the negative impact of such demands on the organization. Government has legislated some areas of societal concern The Employment Act, The Central Provident Fund Act, The Workmens Compensation Act, The Trade Unions Act, etc.

Personal Objective

HR department that assist employees in achieving their personal goals which in turn enhance the individuals contribution to the organization, thereby increasing the organizations ability in attracting and retaining the capable employees. Many aspects of human resource management contribute to a good quality of working life, for example, providing training and development to improve the employees skills and knowledge; management practices encouraging greater employee empowerment through decision-making, etc.

The Relation of Activities to Objectives in Human Resource Management

Management Objectives Supporting Activities

Societal Objective 1. Legal compliance

. Benefits

. Union-management relations

Organizational Objective 1. Human resource planning

. Employee relations

. Selection

4. Training and development

5. Appraisal

6. Placement

7. Assessment

Functional Objective 1. Appraisal

. Placement

. Assessment

Personal Objective 1. Training and development

. Appraisal

. Placement

4. Compensation

5. Assessment

The Service Role of a Human Resource Department

Whenever possible, responsibility for people management is devolved to the line managers, the role of personnel professionals is to support and facilitate line management in this task, not to control it.

Krulis-Randa, J. (10)

As members of a service department, HR managers and specialists do not have authority to manage other departments. Instead, they have staff authority, which is the authority to advise, not direct other managers. Line authority is the right to direct the operations of departments that make or distribute an organizations products or service. Line managers have line authority to make decisions about production, performance, and people.

Functional authority is the right given to specialists to make the final decision in specified circumstances especially in highly technical or routine decisions. When the cost of not following the HR departments counsel is high, top management may replace staff or advisory authority with functional authority over specific issues.

The use of line, staff and functional authority results in a dual responsibility for human resource management. Both line and HR managers are responsible for employee productivity and the quality of work life.

Proactive versus Reactive Human Resource Management

Reactive human resource management occurs when decision-makers respond to HR problems. Proactive human resource management occurs when HR problems are anticipated and corrective action begins before a problem arises.

Managers adopting a reactive approach to problem solving are usually faced with inappropriate and costly consequences. This is what Storey (1a) refers to as the non-interventionary role in which HR people merely provide a service to meet the demands of line managers.

Effective and efficient HR departments anticipate impending problems and challenges before they arise so as to proactively tackle them. Strategic human resource management demands HR department to proactively provide a competitive advantage through human resources. At a more strategic level, HR specialists take on a proactive role. They act as business partners, develop integrated HR strategies, intervene, innovate, and act as internal consultants and volunteer guidance on matters concerning upholding core values, ethical principles and the achievement of consistency.

Strategic Management

To achieve its objectives, every organization must ensure all its resources and functions are well managed and fully and appropriately utilized. Strategic management identifies the strategic goals of the organization and translates them into specific objectives and defines the mechanisms and resources required to achieve those objectives.

Strategic management is concerned with identifying the organizations business, defining its market, and developing the appropriate approaches to that market.

HRM AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

It is the responsibility of Human Resource Management (HRM) to ensure that the organization manages and utilizes its employees - its human resources -efficiently and effectively to achieve the organizations strategic goals.

To do so, HRM operates at three levels

1. Operational

ð the short-term

ð day-to-day function

ð service delivery

ð administrative

1. Managerial

ð the medium-term

ð development, establishment and implementation of activities, processes and practices by which the organization obtains and allocates the resources required to achieve objectives.

1. Strategic

ð the long-term

ð policy formulation

ð goal setting

ð organizational planning

The operational and managerial levels of HRM are undergoing change within the organizations. Increasingly, as organizations recognize the need for, and actually undertake strategic planning, HRM is seen as a vital part of that level of functioning of the organization as well. Also, increasingly, the operational aspects of HRM are devolved down the line, away from personnel administrators.

At the managerial level of HRM - the level at which HRM policies are implemented, HRM practitioners often operate as either internal or external specialist consultants. They work with line managers to develop, implement, and monitor the implementation of HR practices which give life to HR policies and advise line managers regarding specific HR issues and challenges.

HRM is responsible for developing and implementing personnel policies and practices, which facilitate an organizations ability to recruit, select, utilize, and develop staff to meet current and future organizational requirements. For HRM to be effective, it must address the strategic objectives of the organization.

Need for HR Strategy

Ever-increasing pressures have forced managers to critically rethink their approaches to HR management. Managers thus must adopt a strategic mindset or way of thinking about the management of people. By ensuring that HRM is strategically aligned with the organizations overall business objectives, HRM utilizes the workforce as a competitive advantage for long-term business success.

Aims of HRM Strategy

HRM strategies outline the organizations people objectives and must be an integrated part of the organizations overall business strategy. HRM strategy aims to enable the organization to achieve its strategic objectives by

ü ensuring that all business planning processes emphasize people as its main competitive advantage

ü all involved in strategic planning have an understanding and appreciation of HR concerns

ü aligning the corporate business objectives and the objectives of the HR function

ü designing and managing the culture, climate and organizational processes of the business to ensure that every employee contribute effectively and efficiently

ü identifying the core competencies and the expertise (people) needed to build and maintain those competencies

ü ensuring the resourcing activities of the organization contribute to the development of competencies in the short-and long-term

ü assessing the performance requirements needed to reach the organizations strategic business objectives, and deciding how the requirements should be satisfied.

ü reviewing and improving the overall commitment of the organization

Strategic HRM Objectives and Plans

Strategic HRM objectives can be linked to strategic organizational objectives such as

Ø cost containment

Ø customer service

Ø social responsibility

Ø organizational effectiveness

STRATEGIC APPROACH TO HRM

If an organization is to grow and remain competitive, its HR objectives and strategies must achieve the best alignment or fit between external opportunities and threats and the internal strengths and weaknesses of the organization.

Assessment of Influences

Organizations and their HR departments are open systems that are affected by the environment in which they operate. In order for managers and HR departments to respond proactively, they must have an awareness of the external and internal or organizational influences in which they operate.

External Influences

Externally, organizations are affected by economic and social trends, changing technologies and government interventions. The external environment is constantly changing and may be turbulent, even chaotic through the forces of competition in national, European and global markets.

Technological Challenges

The introduction of computerization/automation into the workplace may result in considerable changes to systems and processes. Different skill sets are required as new methods of working are developed. The result may be an extension of the skills base of the organization and its employees, including multi-skilling (ensuring that people have a range of skills which enable them to work flexibly on a variety of tasks, often within a teamworking environment). But it could result in obsolescence of skills and a reduction in the number of jobs (downsizing). New technology can therefore pose a great threat to employees. The evolution of the knowledge-based economy also demands staffing of different kinds of employees and people management where intellectual capital is the leading edge in such an economy.

Economic Challenges

Changes in the business cycle and the subsequent changes in organizations' business plans create changing HR needs especially in manpower utilization. Staff shortage during boom times and redundant workforce during economic downturn are some of the issues that HR has to tackle. Proactive HR practices are seen in the usage of peripheral workers (subcontractors, temporary staff) and outsourcing work to external service providers, thus reducing employment costs and enabling the enterprise to be nimble enough to adopt to fluctuating business activity. Tele commuting (working from home through extensive use of information technology) for office executives is another trend towards flexible HR practices.

Government Challenges

The Singapore government adopting an active role in the revisiting and updating of labor legislations in order to remain competitive as a developed country. Amendments to the Retirement Act to accommodate an aging workforce and changes to the Central Provident Fund to maintain cost effectiveness of labor are some recent government involvement in ensuring the relevance and competitiveness of the laws in the employment relationship. For managers and HR specialists, government involvement requires compliance and proactive efforts to minimize the organizational consequences.

Internal Influences

Unions

Unions represent an actual challenge to unionized companies and a potential challenge to companies that are not unionized. The collective agreement limits the HR activities of supervisors and HR department. The challenge to achieve company objectives without violating the agreement is created. For some companies such as Motorola, the HR challenge is to discourage unionization of the company by offering benefits similar to those unionized companies, thus resulting in a spilling effect.

Information Systems

Information Systems improve the efficiency and effectiveness of information retrieval from the HR Information Systems for employees' data. Such data storage also creates another issue of safeguarding of employee privacy as increasing computer security is emphasized within the profession.

Organizational Culture and Conflicts

In the light of increasing incidents of mergers and acquisitions, HR department also have to deal with culture integration of two companies and stabilize the changes that resulted from the merger or acquisition. Otherwise, in order to stay competitive, successful companies advocates strong values, beliefs, assumptions and symbols that define who the organization conducts its business. It tells employees how things are done, what is important, and what kind of behavior is rewarded. Thus, it is important for management to foster a culture that promotes the achievement of the organizations strategic business objectives.

Organizational structure

The effective implementation of an organizations strategy requires management to ensure that the organizations design helps achieve its strategic objectives. HRM is particularly concerned with the organizational structure because it can directly affect employee productivity and behavior.

Evaluating HRM Objectives, Strategies and Policies

Þ commitment

Þ competence

Þ cost effectiveness

Þ congruence

Þ adaptability

Þ performance

Þ job satisfaction

Þ employee motivation

THE HRM CHALLENGE

As Dave Ulrich (18) points out, environmental and contextual changes present a number of competitive challenges to organizations, which mean that HR has to be involved in helping to build new capabilities. These challenges are

Ø Globalization requires organizations to relocate people, ideas, products and information around the world to meet local needs. New considerations for relocations are volatile political situations, contentious global trade issues, fluctuating exchange rates and unfamiliar cultures.

Ø Profitability through growth creativity and innovation are key qualities that organizations want to utilize as competitive advantages in order to gain greater revenue growth.

Ø Technology the challenge is to integrate technology and utilize it to improve productivity in the workplace.

Ø Intellectual Capital The challenge to organizations is to attract and retain talented individuals to drive a global company that is responsive to changes and sensitive to customer needs.

Ø Change, change and more change the greatest challenge companies face is adjusting to indeed, embracing non-stop change. They must be able to 'learn rapidly and continuously, and take on new strategic imperatives faster and more comfortably'.

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The Eaton Sisters: A Common Heritage

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" What will become relevant for feminist theory in the near future will be when the growing numbers of offspring of intermarriage who can potentially pass as white refuse their inherited white privilege and join subordinate groups to sabotage existing power arrangements," Aida Hurtado observes when discussing the different relationship between women of color, white women and white men respectively (12). About a century ago, a pair of Chinese Eurasian sisters did exactly what Hurtado predicts for the future. Born of an English father and a Chinese mother, Edith Maude Eaton, the older one among the two, sided herself with the working-class Chinese immigrants and sought to right the wrongs they suffered through writing them; while Winnifred Eaton achieved considerable financial success by churning out popular romance novels under a Japanese-sounding pseudonym Onoto Watanna.

The two sisters differ significantly in their ethnicity choices in public, their personal life experience, and their respective literary subject matter and writing styles. Edith declared " I'd rather be Chinese than anything else in the world" quite early in her life when she was a kid fighting with American boys in a New York street (219). Winnifred, when interviewed during the Japanese-Russian war, posed herself as a patriotic Japanese woman. "I know Japan and the Japanese, of course, and in their time of trial all my sympathy goes out to them. I certainly hope the Japanese – No, I mean I know the Japanese will win. If you knew them as I do, knew their courage and skill in arms, you would not have any doubt either," she told the interviewer while in fact she had never stepped onto the Japanese soil in her lifetime (qtd. in Birchall 93). Edith called herself "a very serious and sober-minded spinster" and remained single all her life. Winnifred had no objection to accept financial help from male friends at critical moments, married twice and had four children. Edith touched deep into the routine life of the Chinese immigrants in Chinatowns on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts and depicted them as normal human beings with tender feeling as well as defects of prejudice. At the same time, by exposing the unfair treatment that afflicted the Chinese immigrants, she questions the ideas of "liberty" and "equality" with ironic language. Winnifred, on the other hand, relies on the exotic Japanese setting in her novels and the sentimental interracial love stories to boost the sale of her books. This paper does not aim to praise one and accuse the other on the basis of their public claims of ethnic identity. On the contrary, I argue that both of them are embodiments of singular women who strive to achieve personal success in adverse circumstances.

The pioneering spirit in the two sisters can be traced back to the remarkable family from which they come. Their father Edward Eaton, the eldest son of an established merchant family in Macclesfield, the silk center of England, was on a tour in Shanghai extending family business in the early 1860s, where he met and married Grace A. (Lotus Blossom) Trefusis, a Chinese woman. The latter was said to be adopted, brought to England and given an English education by a Sir Hugh Matheson. Tranined as a missionary, as family legend held, she was sent back to China and met her husband, though little public record survived to prove that (White-Parks 10-12). It is well imaginable what kind of social sentiment the couple faced in the middle of 19th century concerning their decision to live as husband and wife, when interracial marriage was not only a rarity but also a taboo.

Except for a brief stay in the States, the couple mainly lived with the Eaton family at Macclesfield when they came back from China with an infant boy. However, in 1871 or 1872, Edward and Lotus Blossom Eaton, together with their recently enlarged family of four, migrated to North America. There was no clear indication of the reasons of their removal. It might be the depression in the silk trade between England and China, or it might result from possible conflict within the Eaton family or the community (White-Parks 17). In a suburban environment like that of Macclesfield, anti-miscegenation sentiment might be especially strong. The family finally settled down in Montreal, where Edward Eaton tried very hard to support his family as an artist and most of the twelve children who survived infancy were drawn from school at an early age and helped the family to make a living.

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Edith came to the awareness of her unique racial identity quite early in her life and courageously asserted it when she adopted the career of a journalist and a fiction writer. The gazes of curiosity from white people, ranging from those "tempered with kindness" (Eaton 220) to more hostile ones "in the way… people gaze upon strange animals in a menagerie" (Eaton 220) were commonplace events in her childhood. Through her Mom's tales about China and books on the same topic that she could find in the library, she learned the glory of China as an ancient civilization. "At eighteen years of age what troubles me is not that I am what I am, but that others are ignorant of my superiority. I am small, but my feelings are big – and great is my vanity," she wrote in an auto-biological essay (222). Moreover, she used the Chinese words for narcissus "Sui Sin Far" as her pen name when entering into a professional writing career. One of the most popular flowers in China and the most suitable decoration flower in the Chinese New Year, narcissus is famous for both its tenderness and fortitude as the flower to bloom in the adverse environment in wintertime. It is indeed a well-chosen pseudonym for Edith as regards the nature of her unique mission.

When she traveled across the Canadian-US border to earn a living with her pen, she met with more direct assaults on people with Chinese origin. Once at a dinner table in a "little town away off on the north shore of a big lake" in the States, her employer commented, "I cannot reconcile myself to the thought that the Chinese are humans like ourselves…their faces seem to be so utterly devoid of expression that I cannot help but doubt," unaware of Edith's racial identity. Another acquaintance observed, "A chinaman is, in my eyes, more repulsive than a nigger." " I wouldn't have one in my house," declares Edith's landlady (224). Kept by "a miserable, cowardly feeling" to remain silent at first, Edith nonetheless replied to the talk "with a great effort," "The Chinese people may have no souls, no expression on their faces, be altogether beyond the pale of civilization, but whatever they are, I want you to understand that I am – I am a Chinese" (225). Though her employer apologized for his prejudice, Edith did not remain longer in the little town, for she was fully conscious of the force of the prevalent public opinion on Chinese immigrants and people of mixed racial identity.

Her easily distinguished European appearance not only provides Edith with greater opportunities to observe social prejudice, it also enables her to fight the war against social injustice on behalf of Chinese immigrants more strategically. Opposing an unfair and discriminative tax proposal of five hundred dollars "upon every Chinaman coming into the Dominion of Canada," Edith Eaton wrote "A Plea for the Chinaman: A Correspondent's Argument in His Favor" to the editor of the local paper Montreal Daily Star, and signed "E.E" at the end of the article (Eaton 198). The letter reads like written by someone who belongs to the dominant white society in Montreal but nevertheless felt enraged by the unjust of the proposed tax impose. Attacking the alleged rationales behind the proposal one by one, Edith revealed that it was pure ethnocentric prejudice that was at play. In answer to the accusation of Chinaman's existence endangered the "material interests of this country," Edith shows that "he does good to our laboring class for he acts as an incentive to them to be industrious and honest." To the accusation that Chinaman "working cheap," she argues that it is because "the white men are willing to accept the same wages per week as the Chinamen, but they refuse to put in as much work for the wages." Finally, to the statement that Chinaman are "grossly immoral," Edith spoke from personal experience that "I have never heard during a residence her of many years of any one of these Chinese being accused of saying or doing that which was immoral," and went on to point out perhaps there were some exceptions for "it is true some of the Chinamen who have been contaminated by white men and American lawyers, become swindlers and perjurers, and help their contaminators" to exploit their own countrymen. As White-Parks points out, using words "that disguise as much as they reveal" (82), the author came to the clearest implication of her identity when she observed that "it needs a Chinaman to stand up for a Chinaman." By assuming the identity as an insider from the dominant social group, Edith made her argument even more convincing and easier for the public to accept. It is hardly imaginable that members from an ethnic group that was accused by the larger part of society as immoral could find any space in a mainstream publication to have their own voices heard even on matters so critical for their well being. In this sense, the interstitial space of her Eurasian status, to use Emma Pérez's word, serves as an advantage she enjoyed to advance her cause.

One of the most valuable contributions of Edith Eaton's work to Chinese American literature is her effort to depict early Chinese immigrants as diverse individuals with normal human feelings as opposed to the prevalent stereotype of Chinese being not only alike to each other but also devoid of any sublime emotions at all. Mrs. Spring Fragrance is the only collection of short stories that Edith managed to publish in her lifetime. Almost every story in this book is a vivid illustration of the commonplace life in a Chinese immigrant household. She creates such characters as the fully Americanized Chinese wife who cheerfully encourages her friend to break through family arranged marriage, the stubborn but respectable Chinese husband who has acquire American way of life but insists on Chinese way of thinking, and the Chinese woman who, driven mad by the drastic cultural difference she perceives on arriving in the States from a little village in China, poisoned her own son for fear that the American education that her husband planed for the kid would bring him to a more deplorable condition than death (Yin 99).

To draw a fair picture, Edith also incisively points out that some Chinese immigrants are also narrow-minded and prejudiced, just like some white people and other ordinary human beings. In the story titled "Her Chinese Husband," an originally harmonious family composed of a Chinese man, a white woman and two kids ends tragically when the husband is murdered not by Americans but by his own countrymen. The widow lamented at the end of the story, " There are some Chinese, just as there are some Americans, who are opposed to all progress, and who hate with a bitter hatred all who would enlighten or be enlightened" (Eaton 83). Exposing the virtues as well as imperfection in the Chinese immigrants, Edith presented them as individualized human beings rather than a cold-blooded mass common in the popular description of the Chinese at that time.

Living at the high time of Victorian culture, Edith not only courageously fought against dominant social injustice publicly, but also challenged social convention in her personal life. Working as a journalist in Jamaica, she found "some of the 'sporty' people seek" her acquaintance when they heard the rumor that she had Chinese blood in her. She drove away those adventurers by acting like "a very serious and sober-minded spinster" (Eaton 226). In order to further her career, she chose to remain single all her life. Only once did she consent to marry a man, whom she had refused nine times, due to the pressure from her "married mother and married sisters" (228). When one day the young man suggested, "…consider a moment. Wouldn't it be just a little pleasanter for us if, after we are married, we allowed it to be presumed that you were - er – Japanese? So many of my friends have inquired of me if that is not your nationality. They would be so charmed to meet a little Japanese lady" (229). She at once returned his ring and snapped back "Hadn't you better oblige them by finding one?" (229) On that very evening, she wrote in her diary, "Joy, oh, joy! I'm free once more. Never again shall I be untrue to my own heart. Never again will I allow any one to 'hound' or 'sneer' me into matrimony" (230).

Winnifred Eaton differed radically from her older sister in this regard. She was not a warrior who fought for the interest of any ethnic group, but a shrewd businesswoman who knew how to advance her personal career most efficiently, and a lively woman who had no objection to occasional flirtation with pleasant young men. A born fiction writer, she fantasized almost everything around her, including her own ethnic identity, with a romantic light. Fully aware of the taste of her day and the racial and sexual myths that her contemporary reading public held, Winnifred determined to cater to the prevalent and her own belief in social momentum and forfeited the common ancestry she shared with her mother's people. In her anonymous published autobiography Me, she claimed that "My father's an Oxford man, and a descendant of the family of Sir Isaac Newton…"(Birchall 6). When it comes to her mother, she would like to put her hometown in Japan to promote her own personal charm as a Eurasian and make the Japanese setting in her novel convincing to the reader. In a 1908 story about gardens, Winnifred wrote, "I often think of my mother, and her pathetic attempts to recall the bloom of the flowering land of Japan which had been her home" (Birchall 9) She internalized the fabrication that she created for herself to the degree that she virtually lived in this fantasy. In a "private, unpublished, diary-like document, entitled, with hilarious irony, 'You Can't Run Away from Yourself',' she declared, "I was 'labeled' Japanese. The little oriental blood in me did not make me a real 'Jap' any more that the drop of French in me made me a Frenchwoman" (qtd. in Birchall 140). It seems that she was little troubled by the fact that she did not have "little oriental blood" but was born of a Chinese mother. As Diana Birchall pointed out, "It is remarkable to see Winnifred in the very act of lying herself; perpetuating her false identity had become so habitual she did not drop it even in a discourse going on in her own mind" (140).

It is well understandable why Winnifred took such a strategy to achieve personal success. In the first place, she was also an ambitious and strong-willed individual who was quite determined to achieve worldly fame. The first few sentences in the first story that Winnifred Eaton ever published run as follows, "Since I was first able to think I have had intense longings for wealth. To have money, to have honor, greatness, grandeur and splendour, to have all this, was to live. Money, to me, was everything." It will not be fallacious to presume that Winnifred put some of her own voice into that of her character. In Me, her autobiographical novel published in 1915, she wrote, " I had always secretly believed there were the strains of genius somewhere hidden in me; I had always lived in a little dream world of my own, wherein, beautiful and courted I moved among the elect of the earth" (qtd. in Birchall 3). She is also optimistic, to say the least, in her evaluation of her own ability, "I think I had the most acute, inquiring and eager mind of any girl of my age in the world" (qtd. in Birchall 4). Like Edith, she was never submissive in her relationship with men. When her first husband turned out to be alcoholic and abusive, she divorced him and supported herself and her three children alone for several years. Her daughter Doris Rooney remembered how Winnifred prevented her second husband from returning the paint that she had ordered to repaint their house in Calgary, Canada soon after their marriage, to which the husband was less enthusiastic, by driving nails into the tops of the paint cans and making a hole in each (Ling 30).

Most importantly, her decision to "pass as Japanese" was firmly grounded in the historical situation and popular sentiment of her time. After two Opium Wars and Sino-Japanese War, China had fallen from an former glorious "Central Kingdom" to a semi-colonized and backward feudal society that was not only lack in modern technology but also in want of an efficient and strong political regime. On the other hand, Japan, though forced to open several of her ports to the western imperial power, recognized the force of modernization and quickly turned into an new expansionist imperial nation, securing her place in the political world by winning the Sino-Japanese and Russian-Japanese wars. Thus by the turn of the 20th century, the two countries were in completely different light in the western conception.

Besides, compared to the Japanese people in the far-away Pacific islands, the Chinese immigrants appeared to be a closer threat to white Americans. "From 1866 to 1869, between 10,000 to 12,000 Chinese made up ninety percent of the railroad workforce" (Ling 22). Especially when California entered its first economic depression in 1873 and unemployment rate was unprecedentedly high, the Chinese immigrants as a group were readily caught in a scapegoat position (Ling 23). The Chinese Exclusion Act passed by Congress in 1882 "officially confirmed the inferiority and undesirability of the Chinese and seemed to sanction any expressions of hatred …" (Ling 24). Toward a land that is on the other side of the earth where she had never been to, and a group of people suffering the worst public opinion in her time with whom she had never had any direct relation, Winnifred had every reason to deny any obligation on her part to fight on their behalf. After all, it takes immense courage to be a warrior against social momentum. By assuming a Japanese identity, Winnifred ingeniously manipulated the focus of the larger society from her less boastful Eurasian self, an outcome of a deplored interracial marriage to the exotic charm related to Japanese culture that she claimed to be embodied in her. "A woman with her finger squarely on the pulse of her time" (Ling, 55), Winnifred was described as a cultural chameleon that made the best use of her originally less advantageous ethnic identity to guarantee her better chance of survival in a hostile environment.

Though she writing in the popular genre of romance, there is still some merit in Winnifred's literary work. Appealing to popular taste for sentimental love stories and exploiting western notions of oriental exoticism, Winnifred successfully marketed her almost a dozen romance novels with picturesque Japanese setting and gentle and loving Japanese women as her heroines. However, she did centered most of her plots around miscegenation when interracial marriages were illegal by law in many states (Ling, 51). Yet her confrontation with social convention was always tainted with her willingness to acknowledge the established power structure. Among her interracial lovers, the majority of them were coupled on the model of white males with Japanese women. The reverse of this paradigm tends to end in tragedy rather than more popularly accepted reunion of the lovers, which is often the case in her novels.

It is also noteworthy that the heroines in Winnifred's novels are not traditional Japanese women who were content with their standings in society. They are "bohemians," as she called them (Ling, 52), who possess strong individuality that is typical and valued in American tradition. After the publication of her first novel Miss Numè of Japan, a review of this book in Chicago Tribune insightfully pointed out that "[the author] is said by those who ought to know – namely the publishers of the story—to be herself Japanese… but the reader cannot escape the conviction that some bright American girl who has traveled in Japan is coquetting with him under the guise of Onoto Watanna" (Birchall 58). The reviewer would be surprised to know that this "bright American girl" had never been to Japan at all. To some extent, it also attests to the power of the cultural stereotype in influencing and even shaping people's knowledge of a foreign land: all that was needed to depict a Japanese setting, or any setting outside the western society for that matter, was to comply to the popular conception of that Other culture.

Winnifred's literary work is not without its own merit. Her novels are often well-plotted pieces with vivid characters and strong emotional appeal. Even the respected William Dean Howells sang high praise for one of her most successful novel A Japanese Nightingale: "If I have ever read any record of young married love that was so frank, so sweet, so pure, I do not remember it….there is a quite indescribable freshness in the art of this pretty novelette—it is hardly of the dimensions of a novel—which is like no other art except in the simplicity which is native to the best art everywhere. Yuki (the Japanese heroine of the story) herself is of a surpassing loveableness" (Birchall 76).

True, judging from the present feminist standard, both sisters have their own limitations. Even the conscientious and selfless Edith is said to reinforce certain aspects of the popular stereotype against Chinese immigrants when she tended to describe Chinese men as almost womanly gentle but weak in body as opposed to the American man who is physically strong but heartless. Her objective of the assimilation of Chinese immigrants into the mainstream American society would also invite much criticism from scholars in minority studies. And a life under a lie is certainly not something to brag about in Winnifred's case. However, her position was extremely controversial and liberal in a society where Chinese were considered subhuman and totally rejected by the dominant race group. As for Winnifred, Edith once offered a most perceptive comment. She was fully aware that "several half Chinese young men and women, thinking to advance themselves, both in a social and business sense, pass as Japanese" (Eaton 228). Then she asked a rhetorical question: "Are not those who compel them to thus cringe more to be blamed than they"? (Eaton 228)

In her study of the Eaton sisters, Amy Ling concludes, "Though their methods diverged, ultimately, both sisters worked together, for what Edith in her writing asserted—the Chinese are human and assimilable—Winnifred, in her life and successful career, demonstrated" (39). This statement is not very firmly grounded in that Winnifred's success in her assimilation into the American society was based on her very negation of the Chinese identity. However, she achieved worldly success through the manipulation of an originally nonetheless disadvantaged status of a woman in the minorities. The exploitation of double identities is the common heritage that the sisters passed down to future generations.

Birchall, Diana Onoto Watanna: The Story of Winnifred Eaton. (series) Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001.

Eaton, Edith Maude/Sui Sin Far Mrs. Spring Frangance and Other Writings. Ed. Amy Ling and Annette White-Parks. (the Asian American Experience, series Editor: Roger Daniels) Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995.

Hurtado, Aida The Color of Privilege : Three Blasphemies on Race and Feminism

Ling, Amy Between Worlds: Women Writers of Chinese Ancestry. New York: Pergamon Press, Inc. 1990.

White-Parks, Annette Sui Sin Far/Edith Maude Eaton: A Literary Biography. (series) Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995.

Yin,Xiao-Huang Chinese American Literature since the 1850s. (series) Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000.

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What Really happened on Bloody Sunday? We'll never really know. We could find out some facts, which definitely did happen. These following paragraphs show what definitely did happen.

On the 0th of January 17, 14 Catholics were killed (thirteen died on the day a fourteenth died later in police custody from the injures suffered on that day) when soldiers of a British paratroop regiment opened fire during a civil rights march in Londonderry/Derry.

The march began around ten-to-three in the afternoon. About 10,000-15,000 people gathered in Creggan Estate planning on walking to Guildhall Square in the centre of the city where a rally would be held. The march was illegal because the Stormont Parliament had banned protests such as this.

At twenty-to four the marchers met Paratroopers who had sealed off approaches to Guildhall Square. Because of this blockade, the marchers went down Rossville Street in the direction of Free Derry Corner. A group of marchers stayed behind and threw stones and missiles at the soldiers. The soldiers returned fire using rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannons. This forced protesters to take cover in Bogside. The paratroopers in armoured carriers moved in, their orders to arrest protesters they moved down to Rossville Street and Bogside. Now what happened becomes misty. Soldiers say that they just returned fire from protesters and the Catholic community say that soldiers shot randomly at unarmed civilians. The results of 5 minutes of gunfire are undisputed 1 civil rights marchers were left dead a fourteenth died later in police custody from his injuries.

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But why did the British Army fire shots at protesters? This is something we shall never know. But one of the most likely explanations was that the paratroopers were scared of possible violence because of the violence in the past weeks and months, in one event the IRA and British Army had a shoot out killing several IRA members and a British soldier so tensions were high.

The reasons why civil rights marchers organised such a huge rally was a protest against internment. Internment was where people in Northern Ireland, suspected of being terrorists could be arrested and put in prison without any trial. Soldiers, police or other government officials could come into your home and arrest you without any due cause.

Irelands third Prime minister in under a year Brian Faulkner at dawn on Monday the th August 171 officially started internment. This was due to counteract the IRA violence of the past few months. th August 171 000 British Soldiers backed up by RUC Special Branch Officers, who provided the out-of-date intelligence. The RUC officers who were well known for being Protestant and discriminative against Catholics were left to control the operations.

In that day alone over 00 Catholic men were arrested. In the following 48 hours due to out-of-data intelligence 104 were released without charge. One 80-year-old man was arrested for being an IRA terrorist; he admitted he use to be but hadn't being for over 0 years. As he struggled to walk, he said he was flattered that even after so long he was still counted as a threat to mainland Britain.

The remaining internees were severely beaten, deprived of food and sleep and subjected to white noise. The government was being accused of torture; people suspected of having information even if it only was an army hunch were beaten even if they knew nothing (The picture to the left is one of those detainees it is clear the torture he suffered, he was only released when the Army realised that he knew nothing).

This internment did nothing but provoke more violence, in the year before interment 4 people were killed, in just three days after were killed and many more were to follow.

This interment was to only increase support for the IRA many now still didn't join the IRA but no longer condones its actions. This led to hundreds of street demonstrations one of course being Bloody Sunday.

Why was the overwhelmingly number of protesters Catholic? Simply because the Catholics were the ones being interned, as the unionist government wanted to crush the IRA and the IRA being a Republic organisation and Republicans mainly being Catholic. But there was a much wider problem so internment was not the only reason they were marching they were protesting for equal human rights for people independent of whether they were Catholic or Protestant.

The Catholics were fed up of being nd class citizens they found the law was mainly Protestant. Employment was given to Catholics first. Housing was even discriminative but two ways. Politics was extremely Protestant, probably because of vote rigging. 8 nationalist councillors in Derry/Londonderry represented by 14,000 Catholics while 1 Unionist councillors represented by ,000 Protestants. Even the way people voted was so that Unionists won elections. 1 house= 1 vote so the Unionist government gave more houses to Protestants therefore making sure they had more than one vote.

Why was there a rift between Catholics and Protestants? This is due to discrimination of the Catholics by the Protestants; this rift can be traced back centuries. As far back as the 1th century and Henry II invasion of Ireland. The conquered Irish land was given to the English. The Irish were also angered by the fact that these new settlers had more power and privileges than their counterparts. From then till the act of Union in 1800 England and Ireland were frequently at war with each other. During James I reign in 1601 war against Ireland was declared and again under Oliver Cromwell's control war was declared against Ireland. These wars and privileges mad the Irish very angry and anti-British.

The above wars were all about power and land. Religion didn't come into these wars until 154 when Henry VIII was the King of England. Henry VIII and his ever changing marriages, in 154 Henry VIII wanted a divorce and the Pope wouldn't give it to him (because the Pope was being threatened by death by Catherine of Aragón's brother (Catherine of Aragón being Henrys current wife)). Henry in his power decided to break away from the Pope and set-up the Church of England, this angered the Irish, as they wanted to keep as Roman Catholics and refused to join the Church of England. As well as that he also angered the Irish by stating that he was also the king of Ireland.

When James the II was put in exile out of England in the late 160's, through his sheer jealously of the Protestants who threw him out, James II raised an army to attack Protestants in Londonderry/Derry. The new king of Ireland, William of Orange, defeated James at the battle of Boyne. The Orange Order still marches to commemorate that day. The Orange Order marches are another of today's reminders of the division between Roman Catholics and Protestants.

Although the act of Union ended the wars it caused its own problems. Irelands parliament had to be closed and England took over control of Irish law, the icing on the cake was that Irelands new laws would by passed by Westminster, London not in Ireland. These generally unwanted laws meant that there were job restrictions on certain jobs meaning Catholics had the restrictions and Protestants didn't.

The great potato famine of 1846 was when Irelands anger built up and began to erupt. England had failed to help the millions of starving so there was a split in the population. One section wanted Ireland and England to be totally separate countries these were generally the people who suffered the worst during the famine, as they were generally poorer so lived on cheap potatoes. These people in general were Catholics who were also Nationalists and Republicans. The other wanted Ireland and Britain to be linked; in general these people were Protestants who in general were unionists and loyalists.

There was the Partition, the partition was not really an event, it was a process, which took place between 10 and 1. The partition was the Split of Ireland into two parts-

Northern Ireland

Eire/Southern Ireland

Its main terms were

Six of Ulster's counties became Protestant and became a self-governing Northern Ireland, with its own Parliament in Belfast.

The remaining 6 counties would also become self-governing with their Parliament in Dublin.

Britain keeps control of issues such as military naval facilities.

On Easter Monday, April 4, 116, a force of Irishmen under arms estimated at between 1,000 and 1,500 men and women attempted to seize Dublin, with the ultimate intention of destroying British rule in Ireland and creating an entirely independent Irish Republic to include all counties of Leinster, Munster, Ulster and Connaught. Their leaders, Patrick Pearse, James Connolly and the others, knew that their chances of success were so slight as to be almost non-existent. Yet they fought, and died. Why?

The circumstances that led to the Irish rebellion of 116 are of an intense complexity, historical, social, political and, perhaps above all, psychological. The Irish writer, Sean OFaolain, has written of his country Most of our physical embodiments of the past are ruins, as most of our songs are songs of lament and defiance. The Easter Rising was a complete failure, which left large parts of Dublin in ruins; yet without it Ireland might never have been free of English rule. The leaders, alive, had very few supporters even among the Irish patriots; dead, they became and have remained their countrys heroes. It was a great historical paradox, and one that to this day the British have perhaps never understood. Had they understood it, it is conceivable that the British might still have an empire, since the overthrow of British rule in Ireland marked the beginning of the overthrow of British imperial might in Asia, in Africa, and elsewhere.

Died later as a result of his injuries received that day

I have found some reasons why Britain and Ireland had such bad relations. The hatred built up over centuries and erupts as marches and riots, the conflict is from years ago but still effects peoples lives today.

I am going to be studying three main pieces of evidence into what Happened on Bloody Sunday. Below is an overview of them all

Lord Widgery Report Lord Saville Inquiry Jimmy Mc Governs 'Sunday'

When done 17 18-present (expected completion in 004) 1-15

Time taken 10 weeks 6 years years

Conclusions Army innocent None yet Army guilty

Additional information Widgery supported the actions of the army only condemning them for being a little quick. Interviewed hundreds Lived with relatives of those killed and interviewed army witnesses

Didn't interview key army witnesses Expected cost of £150 million Mc Govern was born in Liverpool with a Catholic majority could of being biased because of this.

There is conflicting evidence from Bloody Sunday mainly on who fired first. Others include whether or not the IRA was present. The army would not now admit that it fired first as this would contradict what they said earlier this would cause huge embarrassment for them and saying it in court of law would bring up questions about the army and who really controlled was it the elected government or themselves. The marchers would also not admit to firing first as this would mean that people would stop being sympathetic towards the marchers and their cause.

The problems with the Widgery report? The government has long shared the wide spread view that the Widgery Report was unsatisfactory and that it did not represent the truth of what happened on that day. Indeed, the very disregard with which the Widgery Report was viewed by nationalists, particularly those in Derry/Londonderry, has meant that they have largely ignored it, so far removed was its version of events from the reality of what they believed happened in Derry/Londonderry on the 0th January 17. On three other hand, for the British authorities, the Widgery report remains the official version of events. On the basis of the Widgery report, compensation was granted to the next of kin in 174 and in 1 the British confirmed the innocence of those killed by reference to the Report's finding that none were found guilty.

The problems are mainly inconsistencies between statements, but these problems widened to show reports, statements being kept from the eyes of relatives. Also they found clear indicators that after soldiers had written these statements alterations were made to them and soldiers were often 'advised' what to say in the tribunal hearing. Widgery made no mention of bullets fired from city walls but it has being made clear by former soldiers and factual evidence such as how the bullets entered the body, some were from a trajectory only possible from the city walls.

Staff of the Widgery report have also being accused of fabricating aspects of the soldiers statements in an apparent attempt to justify the killings. The Widgery inquiry never took notice of a who said the lead particles found on the bodies of the deceased could of got there from contact with the bottom of a army vehicle or in touch with a soldier who fired a weapon. The Widgery report had being commissioned by Edward Heaths Conservative Government. Therefore would it be critical of its own government? I think not, it would try to justify the killings. The report only took 10 weeks the Saville inquiry is going to take at least 6 years and Mc Govern's 'Sunday' took three years, these are massive differences could the Widgery report find the truth in 10 weeks that it is going to take Saville 6 years to find out?

It can be concluded that the Widgery Report was fundamentally flawed. It was incomplete in terms of its description of the events on the day and in terms of how those events were apparently shaped by the prior intentions and decisions of the authorities. It was a startlingly inaccurate and partisan version of events, dramatically at odds with the experiences and observations of civilian eyewitnesses. It failed to provide a credible explanation for the actions of the British Army, particularly the actions of 1 Para and of the other British Army units in and around Derry. It was inherently and apparently wilfully flawed, selective and unbalanced in its handling of the evidence to hand at the time. It effectively rejected the many hundreds of civilian testimonies submitted to it and opted instead for the unreliable accounts proffered by the implicated soldiers. Contrary to the weight of evidence and even its own findings, it exculpated the individual soldiers who used lethal force and thereby exonerated those who were responsible for their deployment and actions.

Above all it was unjust to the victims of Bloody Sunday and to those who participated in the anti-internment march that day in suggesting they had handled firearms or nail-bombs or were in the company of those who did. It made misleading judgements about how victims met their death. The tenacity, with which these suggestions were pursued, often on flimsy or downright implausible grounds, is in marked contrast to the many points where significant and obvious questions about the soldiers' behaviour, arising from the Report's own narrative, are evaded or glossed over.

There have been many atrocities in Northern Ireland since Bloody Sunday. Other innocent victims have suffered grievously at various hands. The victims of Bloody Sunday met their fate at the hands of those whose duty it was to respect as well as uphold the rule of law. However what sets this case apart from other tragedies, which might rival it in bloodshed, is not the identity of those killing or killed, or even the horrendous circumstances of the day. It is rather that the victims of Bloody Sunday suffered a second injustice, this time at the hands of Lord Widgery, the pivotal trustee of the rule of law, who sought to taint them with responsibility for their own deaths in order to exonerate, even at that great moral cost, those he found it inexpedient to blame.

The new material fatally undermines and discredits the Widgery Report. A debt of justice is owed to the victims and their relatives to set it unambiguously aside as the official version of events. It must be replaced by a clear and truthful account of events on that day, so that its poisonous legacy can be set aside and the wounds left by it can begin to be healed. Given the status and currency which was accorded to the Widgery Report, the most appropriate and convincing redress would be the Saville inquiry a success.

Problems with the Saville inquiry? We don't fully know the problems of the Saville inquiry, as it has not yet being completed. But the major dilemma we do know it faces is time, it has being thirty years since Bloody Sunday, views vary over years people remember and forget things; its our natural instincts. Evidence has being lost imperative witnesses have died bullet holes will no longer exist the will of being covered over by layers of cement, bodies will of decomposed. The Saville inquiry though is trying to be as through as possible with what it has and is looking for new verification and finding it, but unfortunately it can never establish the whole truth as it is no longer possible, but can still find some and give some indication of what happened on Bloody Sunday.

Jimmy Mc Govern's 'Sunday' is based primarily on fact but there is a lot of fiction intertwined into it but it looks like it is fact. It can be very hard to distinguish between fact and fiction. Prime examples of this are the meeting between the Prime Minister and Lord Widgery he would of never of known what was said and it would of being said 'off the record' so no written information could of ever being found about it, on the helicopter going and leaving the Widgery report he would not of known what the soldiers said and thought- it was fiction. It was a docu-drama if it was just the truth it might not of being as interesting it was made to be shown on television so it may of added bits in for this purpose. Mc Governs own background could of made him naturally sympathetic' towards the Catholics views. He was born and grew up in Liverpool, which is widely known for its high majority of Irish-Catholics, he may of being able to relate to the Catholics better than the Protestants.

Overall the trustworthiest is probably going to be the Saville inquiry, as it has no influence on the current government if it talks badly about the current government, as the Widgery report did. It has more chance of reaching a balanced conclusion. The Widgery report had to be the least trustworthy as it didn't get all information before making judgements some evidence was being ignored. The whole thing had massive gaps in it. The balance of evidence from both sides was lacking. The nd trustworthiest is Jimmy Mc Governs 'Sunday' as it was biased to Catholics but not nearly as biased as the Widgery report was for the government. It had fact but a lot of fiction was also intertwined, although it did accept some protesters were carrying guns.

However unfortunate we know we will never know the full truth on Bloody Sunday there are too many conflicting arguments and nobody will take responsibility for their actions. We will discover some truth from the Saville inquiry but no enough to make definite conclusions. We will never know who shot first although there are accusations that it was Martin Mc Guinness or Soldier H but which one if either we shall never know. Time is a big problem facing the Saville inquiry and Mc Govern. People move people die. Bodies decompose. Places change. We may not like it but no inquiry will bring out the full truth until people start coming forward saying what they did, the man who fired first if still alive if he came forward he could help but will probably take his secret to the grave with him.

What I believe happened was a solider in the corner of his eye thought he saw a gun and shot in that direction, other soldiers and marchers who were carrying guns fired resulting it 5 minutes of undisrupted gunfire and 14 dead. I think both sides have equal responsibility the army fired large amounts of bullets into densely crowded areas and civilians with guns caused some to be shot. I do think many of the Civilians shot were shot by snipers on the city walls. I do believe some of those killed did or were carrying guns but not all of them, but I don't know which were guilty and which were not.

Bloody Sunday is commemorated today by minute silences, peaceful marches, laying flowers and wreaths, trust funds trying to clear the victims names and grieving the loss in your own home by just stopping and sparing a thought for those who died.

Above are pictures of a march through Derry/Londonderry commemorating the 0th anniversary of the Bloody Sunday massacre.

The annual Bloody Sunday march; retracing the route the civil rights protesters drew about 0,000 people when it took place on the Sunday of commemoration of the 0th anniversary.

Bloody Sunday is commemorated today because people are still angry with the government for the Widgery inquiry and still upset that 14 died due to British soldiers who were suppose to be the ones protecting them.

Bloody Sunday will not be forgotten because to relatives and People of Derry/Londonderry, Bloody Sunday is an open wound, which will not be healed until Britain admits its troops were culpable and the victims are totally exonerated.

The events of Bloody Sunday did absolutely nothing but make sure current troubles carried on into the 1st century. Security analysts and politicians concede that it marked the end of a phoney war the start of all out violence. Tony Blair said ' we must justice so the peace process can begin' another leading politician said 'I have lived a long time and no troubles have affected us as a nation as the Northern Ireland troubles.' Disaffected Catholic youths swelled the ranks of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) because of it and joined its hit-and-run campaign to drive Britain from Ireland.

After these men had joined, the IRA needed to be seen to be doing something. So in probable revenge for Bloody Sunday on the nd February 17, an IRA bomb killed 6 at the Aldershot headquarters of the 1st Parachute regiment of the British Army. Ironically, it was the same regiment that killed the civil rights marchers, so you can see why I said in probable revenge for Bloody Sunday. 10th September 17 bomb rocks London. 0th April 174 death toll of troubles hits 1000. 17th June 174 IRA bombs parliament. 17th July 174 IRA bombs tower of London. 5th October 174 bomb kills four in Guildford. nd October IRA bomb west end. 8th October 174 attempted bombing of minister and his wife. 1st November 174 Birmingham pub blast, 1 killed. 5th September 175 London Hilton hotel bombed. nd September 175 Northern Ireland bombed. 7th November 175 T.V presenter shot dead. 5th January 176 bus ambush, 10 die. th January 176 West end bombed. 7th August 17 Lord Mountbatten murdered. nd March 17 British ambassador to Holland assonated. 0th July 18 bomb causes carnage in London. 7th October 18 RUC officers killed by bomb. 17th December 18 Harrods bomb blast kills . 1th October 184 Tory cabinet meeting bomb blast. 8th November 187 bomb kills 11 at Enniskillen. 16th March 188 shot dead at Milltown cemetery. 0th March 18 Senior RUC men die in gun attack. nd September 18 10die in Kent barracks bomb. 0th July 10 IRA bombs stock exchange. rd December 1 bomb explodes in Manchester. 0th March Warrington bomb attack. 4th April 1 bomb devastates London. 10th February 16 Dockland bomb. 15th June 16 huge explosion in central Manchester. 15th August 18 Omagh car bomb 7 killed. 6th February 000 bomb attack on hotel. rd August 001 car bomb explodes in London.

There was a bombing campaign in 1 but then there were no more bombs until after Bloody Sunday, that really is something that Bloody Sunday has changed we now have murderous revenge on not only those who committed the Bloody Sunday massacre but also innocents, civilians caught up in the IRA web of murders.

The only nauseating thing was that Bloody Sunday has contributed to these tensions being brought into the 1st Century, these tensions now affect a range of events including Football, and the Northern Ireland captain was forced to quit the team because of Protestant threats. These tensions will carry on until someone does something about it instead of trying to tackle violently why not peacefully or politically.

One of the things that annoy me is that people who paint murals on their houses have the right intensions but I think these only help to sure tensions carry on into the 1st century. I also think that to get over these troubles then all sides must accept responsibility for what has happened and vow to 'forgive and forget'. On the following two pages there are pictures of these murals.

There were troubles in Ireland long before Bloody Sunday it can be traced back to the 1th Century so Bloody Sunday never changed anything. Bloody Sunday did one thing though it made this phoney war a battle that would continue into the 1st century and if things carry on as they are then for a long time to come.

I think that Bloody Sunday was a complete tragedy; I have no doubt that protesters were carrying guns but they were in the smallest minority. I think that the army fired too much too quickly and were just as much to blames as the protesters. Everybody needs to forgive the actions of the soldiers and vice versa also paramilitary groups such as the IRA need to be disbanded. The government and Irish people need to start building new bridges to stop the growing number of deaths. Their needs to be forgiveness and forgetness. With any luck it will soon, before another life is stolen.

Please note that this sample paper on Bloody Sunday is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Bloody Sunday, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Bloody Sunday will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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PAS BUSINESS STUDIESBusiness and Technology - assignment one'E-commerce in the new millenium'

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PAS BUSINESS STUDIES

Business and Technology - assignment one

'E-commerce in the new millenium'

1. E-commerce means on-line trading and promotion, that is, buying, selling and advertising goods and services over electronic networks. Although e-commerce refers to all electronic transactions over any electronic network, today we tend to think of it as transactions carried out using the Internet. Electronic commerce has in fact been around for a long time. Large corporations have been conducting electronic transactions via Electronic Data Interchange (or EDI) for years. The problem is that EDI is run on proprietary networks, and uses proprietary software. It is too expensive to be used by smaller businesses. The Internet, on the other hand, is an open network. The software that makes the Internet work is in the public domain. Anyone can install it for free. The Internet Service Providers (ISP's) who sell you Internet access are often owned by large companies, which also own the telecommunications networks over which the Internet runs, but they dont own the Internet itself. No one does. This means that accessing and using the Internet is relatively inexpensive. It makes it possible for a one-person business in Adelaide to use technology that once would only have been available to a multinational company. It means that our Adelaide business, courtesy of the Internet, can operate in the global environment, participating in global networks and markets. Using E-commerce information can also be moved across a server to another business or to consumers such as catalogues.

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1. The introduction of E-commerce and the development of telecommunications into businesses has been advantageous is several way. Firstly, it has enabled domestic companies to establish valuable export markets with overseas companies or consumers as their business would have been sited on the Internet. If these companies had not been on the Internet, chances are that the foreign investor would not have discovered this trading partner. Not only has E-commerce opened a businesses opportunities overseas, but it has also allowed other states in Australia to gain access to a companies goods and services even if the selling company was not located in the same state as the purchaser.

By using E-commerce as a point of sales, the appointment of sales staff could be reduced saving the company involved in E-commerce valuable time in training and money in wages. Instead, a computer technician could be employed to make the Internet sight attractive to customers who may not be able to visit the actual store, as they may be interstate or overseas. Marketing and promotion staff numbers could be cut only keeping a select few to develop new products and ways to sell them. E.g. Banks have introduced online banking to reduce the amount of tellers who need to be employed.

If a business is heavily involved in stocks and shares then it would be vital for the transactions and purchases to become E-commerce orientated. The stock market can change shape dramatically and quickly meaning that if transactions are not made swiftly, a large amount of funds can be lost due to lost time. If connected to the Internet, the transactions can be made instantaneously, with the click of a button, possibly saving the company large amounts of money.

The Internet may be a more effective advertising tool to a business that specializes in the sale of certain goods. Companies responsible for the sale of computer programs (software) or hardware may choose to advertise and sell products on the Internet as the companies' target market is more likely to be found using the internet than in newspapers and so on.

Businesses may also need to send letters, pictures, power point presentations or computer programs to other business colleges, wholesalers, distributors or customers. Sending letters and the other items mentioned above takes time and may need to be sent quickly e.g. Inform a customer not to come in to collect a package as it has not arrived yet. The customers would not receive the letter in time using conventional mailing systems (or as some like to call it today 'Snail Mail'). Instead, if the letters were sent using a e-commerce via the internet (e-mail) valuable time and money could be saved.

1.

Dymocks Booksellers

Dymocks is Sydneys greatest bookstore. It all began in 187 when William Dymock began business as a bookseller in a rented room in Market Street. William Dymock died at the age of and as he was unmarried and childless, he left the business to his sister Marjory, who was married to John Forsyth. From that time onwards, the Forsyth family has managed Dymocks. Dymocks booksellers have stores in Adelaide currently. One located in Rundle mall, another at Burnside shopping center and the last at Westfield, Marion. The latest bid made by the Forsyth's of Dymocks was to go online and offer a website, which allows the sales of books and also the preview of services offered by Dymocks.

The site itself has several features that are all useful and easy to access via the main menu. Services such as Gift vouchers, Book Purchases, New Releases, Categories of Books Available for Sale, Best Sellers and a Search Engine. Gift vouchers can be made out, paid for and delivered all by using the Dymocks website. A more in depth illustration of this option will be shown later. The main menu page also displays books of the month and also the weeks best seller allowing people with not much of an idea for books which ones are selling most. The search engine on this site allows for people who may not be able to get into the stores or people who do not want to go there, to see if Dymocks have the book in stock. Even if they do not know the exact name of the book, they can enter a key word and from the results of the search then select the correct one. They can then purchase the book on line and have it delivered to their house. The site is excellent for beginners, as the headings are self-explanatory and easy to follow.

Examples The Menu which greets you as you enter the website is well laid out and neatly presented allowing potential customers to see clearly see which areas they may be interested in looking at. (Appendix 1) Each side of the website contains links which take you to the related area you selected whilst in the middle of the page, new features of the website are displayed. These also contain links, which can take you to the latest additions to the website. If you were interested in looking at the various types of categories of books that are available for sale on this website, all you need to do is to select the Browse or other category links as highlighted in Appendix 1. This then takes you to a page displaying the categories that are available on this website (Appendix 1.1). If the category named 'Top Ten Books of the Week' is selected from the menu, then you are taken to the corresponding page (Appendix 1.). From the page you are able to view the top ten books, read a brief description, see their status (for example available now) and you are give the option to purchase the book. Displaying the front cover of the book allows customers to recall if they have seen the book before or it may appeal to them. So this aspect of the website is especially well planned as it clear, easy to follow and looks appealing. By clicking on the heading 'Mark Waugh; the Biography' or the 'buy' icon, we are taken to a page where the transaction can occur (Appendix 1.). The delivery details, total cost of the book and the prompts you need to follow in order to give your credit card details are all linked to this page. The appropriate links are highlighted (Appendix 1.).

Another innovative idea incorporated in this website is the online gift voucher page (Appendix 1.4). It can be accessed from the main menu (appendix 1) by clicking on the gift voucher link. From this page, the gift voucher can be created with your own person message, which you enter on the Internet. You are able to type in the name of who you wish the voucher to be addressed to, which will be printed on the voucher, who it is from, the method of delivery (post or e-mail), the cost of the voucher you wish to give the recipient and the date of delivery. After each of the boxes in which you enter the relevant information there is an example of how the box could or should be filled out in order to create a user friendly site and attract more customers to the, already successful, online business tool. By clicking next on the bottom of the page you can enter you credit card details and complete the transaction. Dymocks' online store is an excellent example for a successful website. It is user friendly in the fact that there are no complex paths to follow in order to access the area of the site you want. It is all accessible from the main page. As Dymocks is a well-known Australian Company the movement into E-commerce should prove to be a useful business tool as technology is rapidly advancing and this may be the way of the future.

Trading post

Australia's first Trading Post, The Melbourne Trading Post was founded in 166. In 168, both the Sydney Metropolitan Trading Post and the Personal Trading Post in Brisbane commenced publication. Today, the Trading Post Group publishes 11 Trading Post publications around Australia, Autotrader in Perth, Buysell in Sydney, Collectormania and the leading website tradingpost.com.au. The group is now part of Trader.com, a global leader in classified advertising.

The Trading post website itself contains several different sections, which can assist a wide range of people. Firstly, the Trading Post website allows people who are seeking second hand goods an opportunity to purchase them by matching them with sellers. The areas, in which goods are for sale, are categorized on a user-friendly menu that takes you to a list of the products and prices requested for these goods with the click of the mouse. The categories, which have goods available for sale, are

ɨ Arts, Crafts and Hobbies

ɨ Audio Visual

ɨ Automotive

ɨ Business

ɨ Computers

ɨ Employment

ɨ Garden and Outdoor

ɨ General

ɨ Home and Family

ɨ Marine

ɨ Personal Needs

ɨ Pets and Livestock

ɨ Plant and Machinery

ɨ Real Estate

ɨ Renovation and Building

ɨ Sport and Leisure

The contact telephone number of the person who you need to speak to in order to arrange an inspection time or talk to for further information is also available along with a brief description of the individual goods.

The next section of the Trading Post website allows for sellers to register their ads to appear on-line and also in the weekly Trading Post publication, which is released every Thursday. The option to do this is offered on the main screen of the web site and the prompts are easy to follow in order to place your ad and pay for it using a credit card.

Another section of the website allows buyers to search for certain keywords, which may be associated with the product that they are looking to buy by using the 'Keyword Search'. If a buyer is not sure which category the product he/she is looking for falls under then this search can be used. Another variety of search available on this website is a more in depth category search. You can select from the list of categories you wish to search and enter a key word and the website will filter out any irrelevant information and leave you with the keyword you have searched for in the category you selected.

Examples As you first enter the website, it gives you the choice to select which state you wish to search for products in (Appendix ). The way in which you select the state that you want to search in is simply by clicking on the picture of the desired state e.g. S.A. This is an interesting way to setup the introduction page to a website but very effective as it allows first time Internet users an easy option to get their searching started in the correct direction.

Once entering the website and selecting the state which you would like to search in, you are taken to a main menu (Appendix .1) which allows you to select whether you would like to 'Keyword Search' as mentioned earlier, Report a sale or place and add. If you would like to conduct a more in depth, category search then click on the key word search heading or classifieds search heading and you are taken to a more thorough searching option (Appendix .). You can enter the category that you would like to search in, the amount you are willing to spend and the main words associated with the product you are looking to buy. Also the area you are looking in and the age of the corresponding ads can also be entered. This search option is extremely useful in the filtration of irrelevant information and save the user time. An innovative addition to the site in order to attract users to the site.

Finally, if you wish to place an add, you click on the option provided on the main menu (Appendix .1) which takes you to the prompts you must follow in order to place your add and pay for it using your credit card. (Appendix .). The website is well laid out and neatly presented. The options available are all present on the main page allowing easy navigation around the website and allowing efficient searching for desired goods. This would be a rather useful business tool in conjunction with the weekly Trading Post Publication in order to make the Publication more widely available to consumers.

Ticketek

In keeping with the trend of online ticket sales which have usually been associated with airline ticket purchases and bookings, entertainment events such as sport matches like the cricket and concerts; for example The Red Hot Chili Peppers, are now having tickets distributed via the internet through Ticketek.com. Ticketek deals with the sales of these tickets in Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand, concert information, for instance; what date and time the concert/match in on and location of these events.

The main page on this site outlines the main features which are coming up in the months ahead and also exclusive giveaways and competitions you can enter online. These competitions often pop up (activate without selection or command given) and often lead to frustration and annoyance. This may deter some customers from online purchases and therefore could be removed to make the site user-friendlier and more convenient. By selecting one of the main events (clicking on the picture or heading of the concert, the site cuts straight to the chase and gives you a description of the artist or match, Locations of the events, Seating sections and arrangements and the ability to purchase the tickets online. Other features of this website include a list of vendors of tickets. If you are not comfortable completing the transaction online, then this is a helpful idea that may encourage some potential customers to purchase tickets from Ticketek, just not online, instead of going to a completely different company e.g. BASS.

Examples When you first enter this site you must select which country you would like to book tickets in by clicking on the map picture (Appendix ). By selecting the Australia option, the main page for Australian concerts and events is displayed (Appendix .1) which shows pictures of the major events and lists the names of the less significant events.

If you were interested in going to see Kylie Minogue live in concert, you could book and pay for you tickets on line. By clicking on the Kylie Minogue writing on the side panel of the site, you are taken to the Kylie Minogue concert information page (Appendix .). As the Kylie Minogue concert is only a few weeks away and it has been a year since her last Australian performance it is no surprise to see that the tickets are completely sold out and no further tickets will be issued. The description of her concert locations and her tour details are still displayed but the option to purchase tickets has been removed.

The site does not offer that much and I guess it doesn't really have to. Selling tickets is the aim of the business and Ticketek certainly makes this possible not only in traditional stores but also through the Internet. The continual hindrance of the pop up competitions will seriously make me consider whether I would use Ticketek or another company for ticket purchases, as it took the site longer to load and it meant I had to close the competition site down each time it opened. If this were to be removed, the site would be a very simple but quite effective business tool. The site was presented nicely and the color scheme matched the company's logo. The added option of seeing where ticket vendors are located would certainly attract a few more viewers to the Internet site.

CCS Mail-order

CCS mail order is an Internet website established by the creators of 'Strength' magazine and has specialized in the online sale of skateboarding goods, snowboarding goods and magazine subscriptions. The main menu of this website has a playing movie which draws you in right from the word go. The heading to the subsidiary sections of the website are easily located making this site easy to use for beginners and is bound to attract more people to the website.

When categories are selected, the website brings up a menu containing pictures and a brief description of the goods available in this section. The wide range of goods available include

ɨ Complete snowboard/skateboard packages

ɨ Skateboard parts

ɨ Snowboarding boots

ɨ Protective gear (e.g. helmets

ɨ Clothing

ɨ Shoes

ɨ Backpacks and Bags

ɨ Accessories (such as ramps)

ɨ Videos

The website also contains an online version to the 'Strength' monthly skateboarding publication from which subscriptions are available. The magazine has the latest new from the world of skateboarding such as recent sponsorship deals, photography albums, Bios on certain skateboarders and recent competition results. This would provide an added reason for some people to visit the site and may result in a purchase of goods. The site is neatly laid out and presented in a user-friendly fashion, which would give people of all ages the ability to navigate through the site and complete online transactions. The skateboarding magazine also contains sections called 'Trick Tips' which are videos of the world's best skaters explaining to beginners how to execute certain moves and what they should look like. I know this section itself draws a large amount of users to the site, as it is extremely useful information and presented by some of the world's most famous skateboarders' e.g. Tony Hawk.

Competitions can also be entered on this site which may interest some users of this site but if was to lead to a flooding of your e-mail account with unwanted information then it is probably wise to steer clear of this option. The icons to enter these competitions are flashy which may convince some to enter the competitions and therefore prove to be a useful business tool (trading of the information collected from the competition entry form).

Examples The main page of this site has all the options at the top of the page into which section of the website you wish to inspect (Appendix 4). If you were looking for a pair of skateboarding shoes, then the first step that would need to be taken would be the selection of the skate store icon at the top of the main menu page. When the skate store option is selected, you are taken to the page that contains the categories from which skateboarding gear is available (Appendix 4.1). By scrolling down and finding the shoe section, you can see that the brand names of the shoes are all listed under the shoes heading. This makes it easier to pick what you want and find it faster. Lest say, for the examples sake, that you were interested in the 'Adio' brand of shoes. By clicking on the link named Adio you can be taken to a page displaying all the Adio shoes for sale and the amount they cost (Appendix 4.). If you found a pair of shoes which you liked and wished to buy, then either by clicking on the picture or the heading of the desired shoes then you are taken to the page where the transaction details are filled out. Options like color, size and the final price including delivery (Appendix 4.) are all included on this page.

CCS also sponsors a number of professional skateboarders, giving them free products if they advertise for them. On this page you are able to access an interview with certain skateboarders and a picture album of each. These skateboards are world-renowned and reading information about them may attract new users to the site, particularly young people who idolize these skaters. The main focus of this website is to focus on young people who are more likely to purchase these goods rather than the older generations. The skater team page is accessible from the main menu page at the list of categories at the top of the page (CCS team). This takes you to the page where a small picture of each skater is displayed (Appendix 4.4) and by clicking the face you are taken to the interview and pictures of the selected skater. Once the face has been selected, a larger picture of the skater and the interview with him is accessible (Appendix 4.5).

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