Teen sex

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Teenagers in the United States are experimenting with sexual activities more and more today than ever before. According to Charles Krauthammer, Sex oozes from every pore of the culture and theres not a kid in the world who can avoid it. (Meier, 14, p. 7). Teenagers are surrounded by some sort of sexual connotations all the time. Whether it is television, radio, school, or even the Internet, teenagers are hearing the affects of sex on our society. The price that teenagers pay for being sexually active greatly outweighs any advantages. The period of puberty occurs somewhere between the ages of 10 and 14 for most but can vary for different people. Heredity, health problems, and emotional and physical stress can cause these variations. Teens begin to experiment with the opposite sex by hugging, kissing and other forms of sexual expression. People are capable of creating babies as soon as puberty begins. Teens also watch more television and listen to more music developing their own unique personalities. According to one study, about 65,000 sexual acts or comments on prime-time television occur every year (Meier, 14, p. ). In the movies or on television, the actors and actresses make sex look easy, fun and glamorous. It appears to be something everyone is doing. On television shows like Dawsons Creek, sex is usually the major topic of the entire show. Whether it is guys and girls, guys and guys, girls and girls, or multiple persons of each sex, the sex act itself is a major conflict. Movies, such as Cruel Intentions, portray sex as a game. The main characters are placing bets on each other that one of them will have sex with some girl who is against the idea of premarital sex. That movie is rated R, but little kids were in there with their parents. Those types of movies are not meant for a young audience. Now those kids might end up having sex when they become teenagers. Those same teenagers might often be the ones that get pregnant. Teenage pregnancy happens so often that people hardly even recognize it anymore as a negative affect on our society. Experts estimate that the combination of lost tax revenues and increased spending on public assistance, child health care, foster care and the criminal justice system totals about $7 billion annually for births in teens. Despite a 0-year low in the teen pregnancy rate and an impressive decline in the teen birth rate, the United States still has the highest teen pregnancy rate of any industrialized country (Casey Foundation, 16). Thats not saying a whole lot for our nation. In Kids Having Kids A Robin Hood Foundation Special Report on the Costs of Adolescent Childbearing, researchers note, During her first 1 years of parenthood, the average adolescent mother receives income and food stamps valued at just over $17,000 annually… Recent declines in pregnancy and birth rates, however, are encouraging. The rates keep dropping and are showing no signs of increase, yet. The rate of pregnancies has dropped from a peak of 117 for every 1,000 young women ages 15 to 1 in 10, to 101 in 15. That 14 percent drop brought the rate to its lowest level since 175 (Casey Foundation, 16). Rather than deal with a pregnancy after the fact, more teenagers seem to be trying to prevent pregnancies. Teenagers are learning to better use contraceptives and are using them more frequently than before. Some teenagers are aware of the contraceptives available, but they just choose not to use them. Others may find it difficult and embarrassing to talk to their partners about birth control or contraceptives. Contraceptives such as the condom, Depo-Provera, diaphragm, IUD (intrauterine device), and the pill are effective more than 80% of the time. Some of those, more than 0%. Nine in 10 sexually active women and their partners use a contraceptive method, although not always consistently or correctly. About one in six teenage women practicing contraception combine two methods, primarily the condom with another method (Guttmacher, 18). The only method effective 100% of the time is abstinence, which means not having sex at all. Although there are contraceptives, they only work so much percent of the time. The other percent of the time, they will fail and lead to a traumatic downfall for anyone involved. Many consequences are contributed to having sex as a teenager, and even as an adult. Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are gaining more and more publicity. Every year million teens-about 1 in 4 sexually experienced teens-acquire an STD (Guttmacher, 18). The more common sexually transmitted diseases include HIV (caused by the AIDS virus), herpes, gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis and genital warts. Teens have higher rates of contracting gonorrhea than do sexually active men and women aged 0 to 44. Chlamydia is more common among teens than among older men and women; in some settings, 10-% of sexually active teenage women and 10% of teenage men tested for STDs have been found to have chlamydia (Guttmacher, 18). Along with the physical status of a sexually active teen, the emotional status can also be depleted. The emotional problems a teenager will feel after becoming sexually active can be overwhelming. Sometimes the stress from friends and family members becomes too much for a teenager to bear. This can often lead to suicide or beating of themselves to kill the baby and make it look like an accident. When a teenager first learns she is pregnant, she often will not tell anyone-not even the babys father-about her predicament (Meier, 14, p. 1). Holding a secret that immense inside you causes great stress and emotional upset. The teenager may have intense feelings of fear, confusion and depression. In that case, it is a good idea for the girl to get help by talking to a counselor at school or a health clinic. Sooner or later, the pregnant teenager will have to face reality and make some tough choices. She will first have to decide whether or not to have the baby. If she chooses to have the baby, she will have to decide whether to keep it herself or give it up for adoption. Pregnancy itself is usually a very uncomfortable situation. During the first few months, the pregnant woman will undergo many changes. Morning sickness, tiredness and sudden mood swings are just a few of these changes. Teenagers will most likely not want to go to school feeling like that. After a few months of skipping school and receiving poor grades, the student is most likely to drop out altogether. Every year, about 40,000 teenage girls drop out of high school because they are pregnant (Meier, 14, p. 4). Many never go back. Young males who become fathers before the age of 0 often do not finish high school, making it more difficult to find a good job. The average woman who becomes a mother before the age of 18 earns about half as much money as the woman who has children at an older age, or has no child at all. One out of every three teenage mothers turns to welfare to make ends meet (Meier, 14, p. 4). Because of those mothers, anyone with a job must pay the taxes to keep them on welfare instead of out on the streets. Jobs are too scarce for people with no experience in certain fields of work. Thirty or 40 years ago, it was fairly easy for young people to make lives for themselves after the pregnancy. But the American economy and kinds of jobs have changed. Now a high school graduate will qualify for only lowest paying jobs (Meier, 14, p. 71). As a result of all these teenagers looking for jobs, the unemployment rates have gone down, and the employment rates have risen. However, teenagers who get the jobs are more likely going to be working at minimum wage, which can cause unemployment. According to the supply and demand curve of economics, higher wages increase the number of workers willing to work but decrease the number of workers employers will hire (Dallas Headquarters, 17). Teenage parents or just plain teenagers find it difficult to work for minimum wage, and even more difficult to find an employer who will hire them. Some teenagers feel the need to turn to abortion as a way of solving their problems. I personally feel that abortion should not be accepted in any case other than rape, but thats not what this paper is about. About states have passed anti-PBA (partial birth abortions) laws as of August of 18 (Robinson, 1). Illinois is among those . In some states, the legal age to have an abortion with no authorization is 17. That is too young to be deciding the life (or death) of an innocent human being. Another major concern for teenagers having sex is that some people feel that the teenager should have the right to choose what to do with their own bodies. They, as people of the United States, are loyal abiders of the Constitution as well as adults. The Constitution states that we have the freedoms of speech, religion, the press and assembly. Freedom of choice is in there, too. Teenagers might listen to the advice of adults and peers, but they have to be able to make their own decisions. If teens want to go out and have sex, then so be it. Nobody can really stop them. Sure, parents can lock them in their rooms or something worse, but a crafty teen will almost always find a way out. After a punishment like that, a teenager will often just run away from home. That is another issue. Teenagers sometimes are not the best at making their own decisions, especially when it comes to sex. Teenagers often worry that if they get married, then they can have sex all they want without any complaints. In Japan, the legal age to be married without a parents authorization is over 18 in males and over 16 in females (Kasumigaseki, 17). It is probably not much different in the United States. Teenagers think that by getting married, it will reduce the stress and pressures from having sex as opposed to not being married. Some teenagers already have it squared away in their heads that they are going to wait until they are married to have sex. Some of those just cannot seem to wait. A lot of pressures go along with having sex; pressure from peers, classmates, people outside of the school setting. Around school, sex is usually a major topic of conversation. Students around are talking about how great sex is and how often they do it. Those same students are usually the ones who do not worry about protection. Teenagers find it to be some sort of competition nowadays to see who can have the most sex before they graduate. Boys often find that they are being pushed to prove themselves by scoring (Meier, 14, p. ). None of them think of the consequences. Some of them even end up getting pregnant. Some teenagers believe that if they have sex a lot, they will not get pregnant. Others believe that you cannot get pregnant in a hot tub, girls cannot get pregnant during their period, and that you cannot get pregnant the first time they have sex. Some even believe that if birth control is taken right before intercourse, it will prevent a pregnancy. Those are all myths. Getting pregnant is easier than anybody would think. In fact, one out of every 0 girls becomes pregnant the first time having sex. Another statistic is that one out of every 5 becomes pregnant during the first month of sexual activity (Meier, 14, p. 1). There are positive influences out there offering advice and assistance to those teens in need. Parents, teachers and religious leaders tell teenagers that sex should be saved for marriage. Young people are caught between two sets of messages one says, Go! and the other says, Stop! Most teens are too embarrassed to talk to their parents about sex, and many schools provide little or no sex education. Teenagers often rely on their friends for information, which is not always accurate. There are many teens that make a definite choice not to have sex until they are older because of religious beliefs or other reasons. Some realize that problems could get in the way of their plans for the future. Still, others worry about diseases (Meier, 14, p. 10). Some pressures come from other sources and not just their peers. When a young person becomes involved with a boyfriend or girlfriend, the couple may have to deal with the pressures directly. One might pressure the other to have sex. This can often lead to break-ups causing more emotional problems. A girl is more likely to think of sex as something romantic but, however, have sex with boys with whom they have no real relationship (Meier, 14, p. 10). Couples who have sex 1 times run a 50 percent chance of starting a pregnancy (Meier, 14, p. 1). Teenagers should think of the consequences and read over the statistics before jumping into anything. Alcohol or drugs also play a major role in the sexual activity of teenagers. Sometimes, alcohol and drugs play a part in the teenagers decision to have sex. A person who is drinking alcohol or using drugs is less likely to be cautious and responsible about their behavior (Meier, 14, p. 10). Teens will often go to parties and get so smashed that they have no control over what they are doing. Some of them go back to school and brag about what happened at that party or gossip about what happened to someone else. That is where some people earn their reputation as sluts or whores. I do not know about you, but that is what I want people to remember me by when I graduate. Often, those same people are the ones not doing well in school, especially if they come from poor families. They may have few goals or little hope that things will get any better. Some teenagers think that if they are drunk, they cannot get pregnant. That is yet another myth. Unless something is physically wrong, a boy and girl run the risk of beginning a pregnancy every time they have sex (Meier, 14, p. 1). Many services deal with issues about teenage pregnancy directly. Unlike many European countries, however, the United States does not have a nationwide program to deal with teen pregnancy. In 178, President Jimmy Carters administration sponsored the Adolescent Health Services and Pregnancy Prevention and Care Act, which helped provide a variety of services for pregnant and parenting teens. Three years later, President Ronald Reagan eliminated this program and replaced it with the Adolescent Family Life Act, which focused on abstinence programs that encourage teens not to have sex (Meier, 14, p. 77). With a little variety of social services and very little correct information from peers, some people say that children should get information about sex from their parents and only their parents. Studies show that teenagers who can talk to their parents about a lot of topics, including sex, are less likely to become sexually active at an early age (Meier, 14, p. 7). Adults believe that children learn all they need to know about life in school and that if their children are not asking questions, then they are not thinking about it. Some parents think that if their son or daughter has a question or problem pertaining to sex, they will go directly to their parents. Some teens think that their peers know more about it than their parents, so they turn to them. Other parents think that if their son or daughter is getting into trouble, they would know about it. Teenagers will, however, keep lots of information from their parents that could possibly get them in trouble. Parents often assume that their kids do not want to listen to their parents advice, when really they do. Some will not admit it, but most would like them to help out.

The price that teenagers pay for being sexually active greatly outweighs any advantages. Teenage pregnancy, STDs, and emotional and physical problems are just a few examples of the disadvantages of having sex as a teenager. Teenagers pay a great price for being sexually active. The risks are just too great for getting pregnant and contracting an STD. There are more important things in life to worry about than things a person has control over. Another disadvantage, and this is mainly a disadvantage to anyone working and paying taxes, is that society must pay for the children of teenage parents. The taxes are used to pay for welfare and housing for these children. Teenagers often fail to comply with any rules stating that they cannot do something. These rules regarding teenage sex need to be more strict and re-enforced. A lot of parents need to get their own acts together before they start telling their children how and what to do. The parents are the ones we are arguing with here. They are not doing the job that society has handed them. We, as citizens of the same country, need to better the lives of our own kind.

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Methods of rewards and benefits management

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Human Resource Management (HRM) concerns the human side of the management of enterprises and employees¡¯ relations with their firms. HRM is resource-centered and directed mainly at management needs for human resources (not necessarily employees) to be provided and deployed. Demand rather than supply is the focus of the activity. There is greater emphasis on planning, monitoring, and control and rather than mediation (Letherbarrow, 00).

The design and operation of payment systems in many organizations have often been institutionalized by custom and practice, tradition and collective bargaining mechanisms. Nevertheless, trends show that the movement towards HRM has corresponded with the introduction of supposedly new forms and strategies of reward management. Contemporary developments in pay and reward concentrate on individual performance-reward contingencies in a unitarist framework. Employees will be highly committed, and thus motivated and productive, if the reward strategies of an organization match the corporate and the human resource strategy and are carefully implemented. The reward strategy is hoped to support other management techniques to blur the distinction between workers and management.

This assignment is to discuss and critically evaluate alternative methods of rewards and benefits management to get a realistic picture of the advantages and disadvantages of the methods currently in use and the impact on individual and the organizational performance. The assignment will follow the next aspects to make analysis Job evaluation, Motivational theory, Payment systems, and Performance management.1. Job evaluation

In the internal organization, there are strong competitions among all the employees at the similar position because most of them have the desire to get the chance of promotion. Even though they are not at the same position, the competitions still exist. Sometimes for a better position, there are maybe several people to apply for at the same time. Every employee hopes to make good performance in the working process, which can let him/her more distinct in the employees. In the competition, those with distinct advantages can get promotion or increases in the salary or bonus at the end of year.For the organization, it has to invest more money in bringing up new employees than in the retention of its old employees. And old employees are rich in business experience, so their competence is another kind of assets for the organization. But for new comers, the organization must spend more time and energy in the period besides money. Furthermore old employees have strong relationship with the external business so that losing these old employees means losing profits and the advantages. In order to keep these employees stay in the company, organization will think about increasing their salary or giving more business¡¯s welfare or allowance.

Employees can be encouraged by motivation rules to make better performance in the organization. If employees work all the time without some incentive elements, they will be bored with the work and cannot make a good performance in the work. It is not a good condition for the organization¡¯s operation. Organization use the method of motivation can let the employees more positive in performing the work and get a satisfactory result. The organization can give them intangible or tangible thing to motivate them in the process of working.

Every employee working well has the chance of getting promotion or rewards, and everyone making mistakes must accept the punishment. In the organization, the fairness and equity are suitable to every employee. If all the employees perform well, everyone can get rewards and nobody can be cancelled to lose the chance.

. Motivational theory

There are three well-known need theories that are Maslow¡¯s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg¡¯s two-factor theory of motivation and Porter and Lawler¡¯s expectancy model of motivation. They provide an indication of the different needs that individuals bring to the working environment.

Maslow¡¯s hierarchy proposed that everyone is motivated to satisfy a series of instinctual needs that are Physiological needs, Safety and security needs, Social and belonging needs, Ego and esteem needs and Self-actualization needs. Maslow¡¯s assumption is that once one level of needs has been satisfied they no longer motivate the individual and other needs will become prominent (Beardwell and Holden, 001507). The individuals have the ability to climb the hierarchy if the organization provides factors to improve their level of motivation. However if the individuals are fortunate to achieve the highest level of motivation, they don¡¯t stay there for long, as de-motivational aspects come along and have the effect of reducing their standing on the hierarchy.

Herzberg¡¯s two-factor theory makes the distinction between hygiene factors and motivators in the work environment. Hygiene factors are thought to be environmental, which are related to the conditions of work rather than to work itself. But hygiene factors don¡¯t actually increase a worker¡¯s job satisfaction. Motivation factors include such elements as sense of achievement on completing work, recognition from others within the organization, responsibility assumed, varied work and prospect for promotion. An organization must be concerned with ensuring that both the hygiene factors and the motivators are to an adequate standard (Beardwell and Holden, 001508).

Porter and Lawler¡¯s model of motivation can be stated that employees must value the rewards, put in more effort if they believe that good performance will lead to the achievement of the desired rewards, and engage in good performance. Managers must communicate their expectation and objectives clearly to ensure employees understand the requirement, make sure that rewards are clearly and visibly linked to performance, and recognize the important role played by comparisons in determining employee satisfaction, and therefore the consequent levels of effort they will put into a task.

. Payment systems

The payment systems have the three types Payment by results, Performance related pay and Competence-based pay.

In Payment by results (PBR), the motivational impact of the linking of a financial reward to quantity and quality of employee outputs is recognized by many motivational theories. Paying employees for results sets up a relationship between the outcomes of performance and financial reward. And the relationship will lead the individual to try to continue or increase the level of performance in order to receive more financial rewards. But there are some problems of this system. The main problem is that workers¡¯ tendency to manipulate working procedures and falsify records of output. Performance standards become slack as employees receive pay for performance that is lower than originally envisaged, hence inflating unit labour costs. Workers are often directly or indirectly able to assert control over the process of work allocation to install their own notion of equity rather than directed by management¡¯s ideas of efficiency. Management may deliberately relax standards and make it easier for workers to obtain bonuses. Workers may be reluctant to accept management¡¯s request for changes in working practices if their present job or task provides a high income and the change threatens their perceived ability to achieve high bonuses and receipt of other benefits (Beardwell and Holden, 001, pp.516-50).

Performance Related Pay (PRP) can be defined as a system in which an individual¡¯s increase in salary is solely or mainly dependent on the appraisal or merit rating (Swabe, 1817). This system could increase the motivation of employees, encourage certain behaviors; help in recruitment and retention; facilitate change in organizational culture; encourage the internalization of performance norms and weaken trade union power. But there exits some following problems expectancy theory of motivation, displacement of objectives, undermining esprit de corps, reinforcement of status, control and power differences, difficulties with the assessment of individual performance, financial constraints, and crowding our intrinsic motivation (Beardwell and Holden, 001, pp.5-58).

Competence-based pay this system reflects an intention by the organization to reward the use or development of job-related competences. Competences are already in place for development purposes. Its importance includes the following aspects. There is a move away from job-based pay to person-based pay. There are needs to stimulate and reward horizontal career moves; to develop and encourage flexibility and empowerment; to acknowledge and reward more intangible aspects of working; to acknowledge and reward the way in which objectives have been reached, not just the achievement of the objective; to ensure that organizations have the right competences and people with those competences for the future. Such schemes are less judgmental and more flexible than traditional PRP. They communicate the message that ¡®change is happening, and you are expected to change with it, but we will help and reward you¡¯. But care must be taken to ensure that the competence identified and rewarded are relevant to the content and scope of employees¡¯ roles, as there is a clear danger that organizations will significantly increase their overall salary bill without any improvements in organizational performance (Beardwell and Holden, 0015).

After making comparison among the three systems, Performance related pay is more advanced than the others. And more and more international companies make use of this payment system. Though there are some problems in the payment systems, its strengths are more profitable to the organizations in the process of operation.

4. Performance management

Performance is defined as the outcomes of work because they provide the strongest linkage to the strategic goals of the organization, customer satisfaction, and economic contribution. And performance management is a strategic tool in the sense that it is concerned with the broader issues facing the business if it is to function effectively in its environment, and in the general direction in which it intends to achieve longer term goals. It is not simply the appraisal of individual performance. It is an integrated and continuous process that develops, communicates and enables the future direction, core competences and values of the organization, and helps to create a horizon of understanding (Beardwell and Holden, 00158).

As a HR manager, he/she should usually observe the performance of employees from different departments and evaluate their performance from different aspects whether is very good or good or normal or bad or very bad. For those employees¡¯ performances are good, the organization should give them a reward to encourage their future. But for those performances are not good or even bad, the organization should give them criticism and some punishments to push them perform well in the job.

The rewards given to those people perform well can be divided into intrinsic and extrinsic thing. The intrinsic thing is a tangible reward, which can include money, company cars, casual dress and so on. The extrinsic thing is an intangible reward, which could be private health care, promotion and so on. For example the reward from Porter and Lawler¡¯s model is an intangible one. The values of different rewards are different. According to their different levels of performance, employees should receive different rewards that could be intrinsic or extrinsic thing.

Some organization requires all the employees perform the work completely following the procedure formulated by the organization. Some employees maybe cannot get a good performance. These people have an open and creative mind and make some innovation in the job when solving problem met in the work. The innovation can let them work well and get a good solution. For these employees, organization couldn¡¯t neglect the benefits brought from their innovation and should encourage them bring forth new ideas in the job.

In Storey¡¯s key levers, Managing Culture is more important than managing procedures and systems. Integrated action is essential on Selection, Communication, Training, Reward and development. Restructuring and job design allow devolved responsibility and empowerment. Based on those above elements, organizations should make use of integrated action in the reward management. Organizations could use hygiene factors and motivators motivate the employees and let them satisfy with the environmental and self matters. They also should reward employees both intrinsic and extrinsic thing to encourage employees¡¯ performance.

After performing the assignment of the topic about the methods of rewards and benefits management and their impact on individual and organizational performance. The assignment through the following aspect Job evaluation, Motivational theory, Payment systems and Performance management to evaluate this topic. The rewards and benefits management plays an important role in the Human Resource Management.

A detailed description of performance and performance management has been outlined in the assignment. The reward and benefit management is linked to the performance management. Thus the performance management is also very important in this topic.

Through this assignment, the reader could know that the three well-known need theories that are Maslow¡¯s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg¡¯s two-factor theory of motivation and Porter and Lawler¡¯s expectancy model of motivation. We have learnt the two former theories in the last semester, but more knowledge about them can be obtained from this module. The latter theory is a new theory for the learning. After studying the lecture about this theory, the Porter and Lawler¡¯s model emphasizes the importance of performance from the employees and the reward linked to the good performance of the employees.

The payment systems have the three types Payment by results, Performance related pay and Competence-based pay. Each of them has its own strengths and problems itself. The three payment systems have their own basement, so the payment is implemented from different elements. And compared the three types, the results reflect that Payment by results is more acceptable by the organization.

The rewards and benefits management makes great impacts during the period of operation in the organization. It could encourage individual to make better performance in the job and influence the organization to more focus on the performance of the employees in the organization. Thus organizations should realize its importance and concentrate on the implementation of the rewards and benefits management in the internal operations. The HR manager should take on the responsibility of this management.

1. Armstrong, M. (001), A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice (8th edn), London, Kogan Page

. Beardwell, I. and Holden, L. (001), Human Resource Management A Contemporary Approach (rd edn), Essex, Financial Times Pearson Education

. Curtis, S. and Wright, D. (001) ¡®Retaining Employees ¨C The Fast Track to Commitment¡¯, Management Research News, Vol. 4 No. 81, 001, pp.56-60

4. Graham, H. T. and Bennett, R. (18), Human Resources Management (th edn), Essex, Financial Times Pearson Education

5. Leatherbarrow, C. (00), Lecture Notes for MPO, Britain, Staffordshire University

6. Swabe, A.I.R. (18) ¡®Performance-related pay a case study¡¯, Employee Relations, Vol.11, No., pp.17-

7. West, M. and Patterson, M. (18), ¡®Profitable Personnel¡¯, People Management, 8th Jan, 18, pp.8-1

8. Zhang, W. (001), ¡®Culture Development on Human Resource¡¯, China Marketing, March 001, pp.4-4

Please note that this sample paper on methods of rewards and benefits management is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on methods of rewards and benefits management, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on methods of rewards and benefits management will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Hypoglycemia: Will The Real Hypoglycemia Please Stand Up

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Hypoglycemia Will the Real Hypoglycemia Please Stand Up

Three individuals, all located in different jobs on a certain day, begin to experience symptoms of varying amounts of dizziness, shakiness, hunger, and headache, among other things. All three individuals recognize these symptoms, having experienced them in the past at one time or another. In addition, all three treat the symptoms, as experience has taught them, by quickly eating a food rich in carbohydrates. Symptoms in all three, in a short amount of time, begin to alleviate.

Although all three individuals have just experienced classic symptoms of hypoglycemia, only one may actually be suffering from it.

This paper will attempt to educate the reader in exactly what hypoglycemia is, how to treat it, and how it relates to diabetes. In so doing, the hope is that the reader will be able to recognize hypoglycemia and how to treat it, as well as treat the symptoms of hypoglycemia that may be caused by some other condition.

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What Is Hypoglycemia?

The human body requires blood glucose levels to be between 70mg/dl and 110mg/dl (md/dl means milligrams of glucose in 100 milliliters of blood). Blood sugar below 70mg/dl is Hypoglycemia, a condition that occurs when blood does not contain enough glucose for the body's cells. The nerve and brain cells require a continuous supply of glucose and are severely affected by having too little. The pancreatic hormones insulin and glucagons maintain blood sugar in this narrow range (Norman Endocrine Surgery Clinic, 00).

Insulin and Glucose

Hormones from the pancreas called insulin regulate the body's use of sugar and other foods. When food is eaten and absorbed into the bloodstream, the pancreas increases the secretion of insulin. Insulin moves nutrients from the bloodstream to target cells located in the liver, muscle, and fat tissues. Protein molecules known as insulin receptors bind the insulin and activate the receptors which speed up the entry and use of nutrients (World Book, 00). Glucose, produced by the digestion of carbohydrates is then used to provide energy for the body or converted into glycogen. When blood glucose begins to fall, stored glycogen is broken down and used to provide needed glucose (NDIC, 00).

Some symptoms of hypoglycemia are hunger, headache, nervousness, and perspiration. Because these symptoms are so common for many ailments, people are often misdiagnosed with hypoglycemia (Sizer & Whitney, 00). The most common symptoms of hypoglycemia are nervous or shakiness, dizziness, sleepiness, confusion, and difficulty speaking. People who do suffer from hypoglycemia also experience confusion, amnesia, poor coordination, and slurred speech. In severe or advanced cases, loss of consciousness and convulsions may occur, and extremely rare cases may result in death or brain damage (NDIC, 00).

Causes of Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia often occurs in people who are taking medicine for diabetes, as these people have too little insulin. Because a diabetic's blood contains too much sugar they take insulin to lower it. Hypoglycemia may occur if the dose is too large and this can result in loss of consciousness unless treated immediately. Most people with diabetes know well how to spot the early signs of a hypoglycemic reaction and how to treat it, usually by consuming a carbohydrate (NDIC, 00).

Aside from diabetes, there are traditionally two cases of hypoglycemia, organic and functional (World Book, 00). Organic hypoglycemia is the more severe form and is the result of a physical abnormality such as liver disease. Since the liver stores glycogen and converts it to glucose before releasing it into the blood as needed, a diseased liver may fail to release the proper amounts. Tumors in the pancreas can also cause organic hypoglycemia, because the tumors may cause the pancreas to release too much insulin. This can be effectively treated by having the tumors removed (World Book, 00).

Reactive hypoglycemia is the major form of functional hypoglycemia, an exaggeration of the body's normal reaction to eating (World Book, 00). Few causes of reactive hypoglycemia are certain. Because of the rapid way in which food passes into the small intestine gastric surgery may be one cause. Some rare enzyme deficiencies such as fructose intolerance may also be a cause of reactive hypoglycemia (NDIC, 00) .

Along with the medicines used to treat diabetes, salicylates, sulfa drugs, pentamidine, and quinine may cause a hypoglycemic reaction. If using these medications causes a drop in blood glucose a doctor can prescribe a change in dosage or stop them all together. Alcohol is another cause of hypoglycemia because the way the body breaks down alcohol interferes with the liver doing its job of raising blood glucose (NDIC, 00). This is one more way that excessive drinking can be fatal.

Diagnosis

For many years doctors relied on the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to diagnosis hypoglycemia. Unfortunately that test was not reliable, and could actually trigger hypoglycemic symptoms. Doctors today perform a more thorough exam that includes checking blood sugar at the time the person is having the hypoglycemic symptoms. A doctor will also consider what medications are being taken, the patients medical history, and the severity of the symptoms (Milton, 00). Laboratory tests to measure insulin production can also be performed.

Hypoglycemia is actually quite rare, and research suggests that some people are just more sensitive to the body's normal release of the hormone epinephrine after a meal.

Medication Side Effects

Hypoglycemia is not a disease by its self; it is a condition that is the result of low blood sugar levels. One disease that can cause hypoglycemia is diabetes. When the blood glucose begins to fall, glucagon signals the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose. This causes the blood glucose levels to go back up to normal levels. In a person with diabetes, this glucagons response to hypoglycemia may be impaired, thus making it difficult for the glucose levels to return to a normal range (NDIC, 00).

Hypoglycemia occurs in people who use insulin to lower the blood sugar. The reason for the insulin is to help lower high blood sugar levels; either insulin or oral drugs can do depending on the type of diabetes this. Hypoglycemia can occur several different ways, taking too much medication, missing or postponing a meal, eating too little food for the amount of insulin taken, exercising too much, drinking too much alcohol, or any combination of these factors (Web MD, 00).

Treating Diabetes Related Hypoglycemia

People with type 1 diabetes are more susceptible to insulin reactions that can cause loss of consciousness. Some people with long-standing insulin dependent diabetes can develop a condition known as hypoglycemia unawareness. This is when they would have some difficulty recognizing the symptoms of low blood sugar. A physician may prescribe an injectable form of the hormone glucagons. This injection can quickly lower the symptoms of low blood sugar by releasing a burst of glucose into the blood.

In order to reduce episodes of hypoglycemia, the blood sugar levels should frequently be monitored. The person should also learn how to recognize symptoms of low blood sugar and the situations that may trigger it. Hypoglycemia can be treated quickly by eating or drinking something with sugar in it such as candy, juice, or non-diet soda.

Children with Diabetes and Hypoglycemia

Children with hypoglycemia from diabetes will need a great deal of attention from their parents and teachers and other adults that may spend large amounts of time with such a child. They will need assistance with maintaining and monitoring their diet, checking blood sugar levels, taking insulin, and handling high and low blood sugar levels (Web MD, 00).

It's also recommended that the child participate in the care of diabetes to the level that is appropriate for the age of the child. The idea is that by the time the child is an adult, it will all be routine.

Health Plan and Exercise

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle that includes regular exercise and a healthy diet will help deter the onset of hypoglycemia. However, for those that are diagnosed with this disease responding to the symptoms immediately will be key in moderating the symptoms and lowering the chances of the disease worsening. Sizer & Whitney suggest that structuring a high protein and well balanced diet, as well as scheduling meals is extremely important in treating the symptoms of Hypoglycemia.

Prevention

It is helpful to avoid drinking excessive amounts of alcoholic beverages, which can cause hypoglycemia, and can ultimately be fatal. When the body has to concentrate on breaking down alcohol, this can interfere with the livers efforts to raise blood glucose.

Some suggestions on ways to prevent the onset of hypoglycemia are avoiding too many carbohydrates in meals, eating frequent small meals and snacks throughout the day, choosing healthy snacks over junk food, and following a regular exercise plan.

Treatment Medication

Treatment will vary slightly depending on individual's age, what stage the disease is at, a person's tolerance level, and overall health. In severe cases a person can lose consciousness, so it is advisable that people diagnosed with this disease wear a medical id bracelet. Friends and family should be taught how to administer a glucagon injection. People with diabetes are especially susceptible to this disease. It is important that they recognize warning symptoms. It is necessary to eat something with sugar in it immediately (NDIC, 00). "Children who have hyperinsulinism may require treatment with medications to decrease the production of insulin the body. In more serious cases, the child may have to undergo surgery to remove the pancreas." (Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital, 00).

It is important that if an individual is diagnosed with the hypoglycemia that he or she knows how to administer his or her prescribed medication correctly. If he believes that his blood glucose is low, he should not wait. It should be checked and treated it immediately. Easy meals should be prepared in advance to keep close by at all times, since it is necessary to eat and allow 15 minutes prior to checking blood glucose levels. "Suggested foods to help raise blood glucose levels quickly are 4 ounces of fruit juice, 4 ounces non-diet soda, 8 ounces of milk, 5-6 pieces of hard candy, or 1- teaspoons of sugar or honey." (NDIC, 00). She will need to ensure that her blood glucose level is between 70 to 110 mg/dL first thing in the morning and 70 to 140 after meals. For those that have diabetes the levels are different between 0 to 10 before meals, less than 180 an hour after meals (NDIC, 00).

"To produce even mild hypoglycemia and its symptoms in normal, healthy people requires extreme measures administering drugs that overwhelm the body's glucose-controlling hormones, insulin and glucagon." (Sizer & Whitney, 00). Side effects from some medicines can cause the onset of hypoglycemia, so it is important to be aware of this when taking prescription drugs. The follow list includes some of the medicines that can cause a person's blood glucose to drop salicylates, sulfa medicines that treat infections, pentamidine that treat pneumonia, or quinine that treats malaria.

Treatment Health Plan and Exercise

Individuals with hypoglycemia should follow a healthy diet established by a qualified dietitian or nutritionist (NDIC, 00). When enduring a more strenuous activity than normal one should talk to specialist about how to increase the diet accordingly. For example, if hiking, it may be necessary to eat before beginning.

It is essential that those suffering from this disease eat a variety of foods. "Some suggested foods include meat, poultry, fish, or non-meat sources of protein; starchy foods such as whole-grain bread, rice, and potatoes; fruits; vegetables; and dairy products." (NDIC, 00). The suggested recommendations of the FDA food pyramid can be useful to plan an appropriate diet.

It is also important to eat a diet high in fiber. "Fiber helps the body slow the absorption of nutrients and cholesterol absorption, bind bile for excretion, enhance bacterial fermentation in the colon, and increase stool weight." (Sizer & Whitney, 00). Sizer & Whitney describe major food sources to increase soluble fiber intake include barley, fruits, legumes, oats, oat bran, rye, seeds, and vegetables. They go on to explain that insoluble fiber can be found in brown rice, fruits, legumes, seeds, vegetables, wheat bran, and whole grains.

Another useful tool to help limit the negative effects of hypoglycemia is to use the glycemic index of popular foods, from the book The Basics of Human Nutrition, as a guide for monitoring and limiting sugar intake. This chart divides food into low, medium, and high levels of glucose to help individuals monitor the types of food they eat based on the amount of sugar in the food.

Research

Ongoing research continues to make new advances in preventing and treating this disease. "The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) was established by Congress in 150 as one of the National Institutes of Health under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The NIDDK conducts and supports research in diabetes, glucose metabolism, and related conditions." (NDIC, 00).

Summary and Conclusion

In some individuals, hypoglycemia can be a very dangerous condition. In others, the condition may simply be an annoyance. For both, however, the symptoms and condition are very treatable and manageable with diet, exercise, and for diabetes sufferers, and chronic hypoglycemic sufferers, medication.

Though the condition is relatively rare, a true diagnosis requires the attention of a physician, who can measure the blood sugar level, a necessary step in the diagnosis. As this paper demonstrates, there is much that is involved with what goes on in the bodies of those who suffer from the condition.

Giving proper attention to hypoglycemia and diabetes can prevent a possible serious medical condition or episode, and can help those who suffer from them lead more healthy and productive lives. References

Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital (00). Diabetes & Other Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders. Retrieved August 6, 00 from the World Wide Web http//www.lpch.org/DiseaseHealthInfo/HealthLibrary/diabetes/hypo.html

Milton, L. (00). Diagnosis of Hypoglycemia. Retrieved August 5, 00 from the World Wide Web http//www.english.uga.edu/cdesmet/class/engl480/work/projects/milton/diagnosis.html

NDIC (00). Hypoglycemia. Retrieved August 5, 00 from the World Wide Web http//diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/hypoglycemia/index.htm

Norman Endocrine Surgery Clinic (00). Normal Regulation of Blood Glucose. Retrieved August 5, 00 from the World Wide Web http//www.endocrineweb.com/insulin.html

Sizer, F., Whitney, E. (00). Nutrition Concepts and Controversies. Belmont, CA Wadsworth/Thomas Learning.

Web MD (00). Children Living With the Disease . Retrieved August 8, 00 from the World Wide Web http//my.webmd.com/content/healthwise/1/70

Web MD (00). Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar). Retrieved August 8, 00 from the World Wide Web http//my.webmd.com/content/healthwise/154/845.htm?lastselectedguid={5FE84E0-BC77-4056-A1C-5171CA48}

World Book (00). World Book Online. Retrieved August 5, 00 from the World Wide Web http//www.worldbookonline.com/wbol/wbAuth/jsp/wbArticle.jsp?/na/ar/co/ar7780.htm

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The kingdom of charlemagne

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There was relatively little commerce in Western Europe. Roads, bridges, and the infrastructure were generally non-existent. Furthermore, the countryside was unsafe for travel due to a lack of organized law enforcement. Small villages had to take care of themselves; therefore, goods were manufactured to supply local needs only. Among the Franks, all sons were entitled to a share. Therefore, when a King died, each son became a King over his own little kingdom. This created many small political units with no uniform laws or policies. This lack of unity made them vulnerable to enemies as well as conflict from within. During this time, loyalty of a warrior or subject to his chosen leader and to the homeland or institution was not a light matter. Charlemagne provided unity and stability during his time.

Political authority played a significant role in the rise of the Frankish Empire. Charlemagne's role as the political leader of the empire is one of the key factors contributing to its rise. The basis for Charlemagne's power was his dual authority - King of the Frankish Empire and Emperor of Rome. Before Charlemagne and his father, Pepin's, reigns, the basis of political authority did not lie with the king. Einhard writes, It had really lost all power years before and it no longer possessed anything at all of importance beyond the empty title of king. The wealth and the power of the kingdom were held tight in the hands of certain leading officials of the court, who were called the mayors of the palace . The king possesses nothing at all of his own, except a single estate with extremely small revenue". It was Pepin, who set the precedent for the shift in political authority. He started out as a Mayor of the Palace, which was a title granted by the people to someone based on their wealth and family distinction. Pepin later inherited from his father Charles [Martel 715-41] the title of King which he later passed on to his children, Charlemagne and Carloman.

The Frankish people had a lot to do with decisions relating to political authority. In 768, King Pepin died and a general assembly was called to determine who should be King Charlemagne or Carloman. The people decided that Pepin's kingdom should be divided between his two sons. This joint rulership illustrated the importance of the role of councils and general assemblies in deciding political authority . Their support would determine whose will would prevail between the two equal ruling brothers.

Though there were many outside factors influencing political authority, transfer of power was still based on hereditary. Family and relationships still largely determined the position a person could obtain. It was very rare that a person who was not of noble class could achieve greatness, although Charlemagne did support meritocracy in his court. In the case of Charlemagne, family was of great importance, since it was his father, Pepin who, as King, was able to pave the way for Charlemagne to come to power. Charlemagne and his brother, Carloman became kings because of Divine right.Order College Papers on the kingdom of charlemagne

There was tension between the brothers until Carloman died at the end of 771 . When Carloman died, Charlemagne could not take control of Carloman's empire without first calling another general assembly and obtaining the consent of all Franks. At the assembly, a number of prominent people in his kingdom offered allegiance to Charlemagne. As a result, Charlemagne gained control of his late brother's empire, united it with his own empire and became sole ruler of the Frankish empire. With a monarchy, the empire was stronger, more united.

Although family position did have its benefits, many family relationships also created friction as well. For example, Carloman and Charlemagne jointly ruled the Frankish Empire and this created tension between them. And later, when it came to his own heirs,

some of Charlemagne's children were indeed threats to the empire. Einhard writes, "Pepin who was born to Charlemagne by a concubine conspired with certain of the Frankish leaders who had won him over to their cause by pretending to offer him the kingship. The plot was discovered and the conspirators were duly punished. Pepin was tortured ."

To prevent this from happening again, Charlemagne kept his children very close to him. He devoted as much time to the upbringing of his daughters as he did to his sons. Marriage was another way by which family relations were formed. Often times, marriages were arranged to benefit families politically. In the case of Charlemagne's first wife, at the bidding of his mother, he married the daughter of one of his rivals -Desiderius, the King of the Longobards . Marriage was a way to forge many political as well as diplomatic connections. Women were valuable political pawns, which is perhaps why none of Charlemagne's daughters got married. He felt that, if they married, their husbands would pose a threat to the throne.

Sometimes, disagreements between the King and his councils would cause rifts. And, on occasion, the King was able to manage without the support of the council. In spite of these disagreements, the councils played an important role in political authority. The people were always consulted about matters of importance.

The warrior spirit was considered to be one of the most esteemed attributes of a Frank.

Fighting was endemic those who monopolized the wars also controlled society. Franks were plagued with war after war.

When Charlemagne was of the right age, it is recorded that he worked eagerly at riding and hunting. It was the custom of the Franks to ride and be practiced in the use of arms and ways of hunting. We may reasonably infer that acquiring these skills formed a major part of his early education.

Charlemagne was not a "man of letters" and literacy was considered unimportant at that time for anyone other than the clergy. Charlemagne didn't become interested in "letters" until later in life . Charlemagne gained a number of experiences in public duties and responsibilities, which were assigned to him by his father, thus, giving him an apprenticeship to rule the kingdom. Although Charlemagne was not literate, he seems to have placed value in education. We can credit him with the revival of learning.

Charlemagne saw that education was in serious decline. So he assembled at his court some of the finest minds of his day. He also sponsored monasteries where ancient books were preserved and copied. He reformed the palace school and ensured that monastic schools were set up throughout the realm. The idea of learning was given a time and a place to flourish .

The "Carolingian Renaissance" was an isolated phenomenon. Learning did not catch fire throughout Europe. Only in the royal court and monasteries was there any real focus on education. Yet, because of Charlemagne's interest in preserving and reviving knowledge, a wealth of ancient manuscripts was copied for future generations . Just as important, a tradition of learning was established in European monastic communities. These monasteries helped to overcome the threat of the extinction of Latin culture.

Charlemagne created a political hierarchy in which the Counts would report to the Dukes, and the Dukes to Charlemagne himself. Charlemagne gained the loyalty and respect of his Barons by leading them on numerous successful military campaigns. He also insisted that his nobles be educated, and formed at his palace, a school under the direction of the scholar, Alcuin . With Alcuin as the "Minister of Education", the palace school began what is known as the "Carolingian Renaissance". This characterization is supported by the desire of the Emperor to rebuild the Roman Empire and rule in the same manner as the Roman Emperors. It is this renaissance that impacts the Western world today, more than any of Charlemagne's military conquests.

In Charlemagne's palace school at Aachen, one finds the ideals and aims of the Carolingian renaissance most definitively.

The Merovingians established a school to train young nobles to fight, and how to conduct themselves at court. At the time, however, no academic knowledge was being imparted . The only schools that taught academics were located at monasteries and cathedrals.

Charlemagne altered the palace school into a center of learning and knowledge . He hired scholars to teach under the direction of Alcuin, Minister of Education. Charlemagne required Alcuin himself to instruct the royal family in reading and writing.

In addition to the palace school, Charlemagne made many decrees concerning the education of his people

(1). His "Charter of Modern Thought" required that the monasteries be concerned with "the study of letters" .

() Charlemagne ordered that teachers "who are both willing and able to learn" be hired and "let them apply themselves to this work with a zeal equal to the earnestness with which we recommend it to them" .

The Carolingian handwriting that evolved during Charlemagne's reign was developed to increase the legibility of the numerous manuscripts the monks turned out at this time. These small letters, known as "Carolingian Miniscule" became the basis of the lower case letters we use today. Ninety percent of the works of ancient Rome now in existence, are preserved in the form of manuscripts copied in a Carolingian Monastery.

While Charlemagne attempted to rekindle an interest in learning and unite various groups into one nation, he never addressed the economic difficulties that Europe faced, now that Rome no longer furnished order. Although Charlemagne did devise the system of pounds, shillings and pence used throughout Europe during the middle ages and in Britain until recently, other segments of the infrastructure continued to decline. Roads and bridges fell into decay, trade was fractured, and manufacturing was by necessity a localized craft, instead of a widespread and profitable industry .

The political and cultural life of Europe collapsed with the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century. Three hundred years later, Charlemagne, who became sole king of the Franks in 771, led a cultural revival that lifted Western Europe from darkness. Charlemagnes reign also was marked by brutal military campaigns designed to expand his empire. For more than 0 years, Charlemagne waged a bitter war against the Saxons, finally forcing their conversion to Christianity . This campaign included the mass execution of 4,500 Saxons on a single day. Although Charlemagne ultimately controlled practically all of the Christian lands of Western Europe, his empire quickly crumbled following his death in 814. The cultural revival sparked by Charlemagne nonetheless had a permanent influence on Europe and overshadowed his ruthless military measures.

The papacy was an essential element of political authority in Frankish society. Pepin forged a relationship with the papacy by coming to the aid of the Pope of Rome. In return, Pepin is made King. Charlemagne's relationship with the papacy is an extension of his father's relationship. He continues Pepin's efforts to protect the papacy. In return, Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne emperor . As emperor of Rome, Charlemagne's realm of political authority doubles. Charlemagne's political authority not only lies in the secular world, but in the ecclesiastical world. He takes on the role of the protector of the church. His new position allows him to do many things, including reforms in the church and reforms in the legal system of Frankish society. Einhard writes He made careful reforms in the way in which the psalms were chanted and the lessons read." Now that he was Emperor, he discovered that there were many defects in the legal system of his own people. The Franks had two separate codes of law which differ from each other on many points. He committed himself to writing and unifying the laws of all the nations under his jurisdiction which had at that point still remained unrecorded .

Charlemagne was profusely generous to the Church. At the same time, he made himself the church's master, and used its doctrines and personnel as instruments of education and government. Much of his correspondence was about religion. He hurled scriptural quotations at corrupt officials or worldly clerics and the intensity of his utterances precluded suspicion that his piety was a political pose. He sent money to distressed Christians in foreign lands, and in his negotiations with Muslim rulers, he insisted on fair treatment of their Christian population .

Bishops played a leading part in his councils, assemblies, and administration. But, he looked upon them, however reverently, as his agents under God and he did not hesitate to command them, even in matters of doctrine or morals. He denounced image worship while the popes were defending it. From every priest, he required a written description of how baptism was administered in their parish. Popes received as many directives from him as they did gifts. He suppressed insubordination in monasteries and ordered a strict watch on convents to prevent "whoring, drunkenness, and covetousness" among the nuns.

In his quest to become Emperor of Rome, Charlemagne faced many difficulties. The Greek monarch already had the title of Roman emperor and full historic right to that title. The Church had no recognized authority to convey or transfer the title, let alone give it to a rival of the Greek Monarchy. Byzantium might precipitate a gigantic war of Christian East against Christian West, leaving a ruined Europe to a conquering Islam .

On December 6, 75, Leo III was chosen Pope. The Roman populace did not like him. They accused him of various misdeeds such as simony, perjury, and adultery. And on April 5, 7, they attacked the Pope, maltreated him, and imprisoned him in a monastery. He escaped, and fled to Charlemagne at Paderborn for protection.

The King received him kindly and sent him back to Rome under armed escort. In the following year, he ordered the Pope and his accusers to appear before him. On December 1, 800, an assembly of Franks and Romans agreed to drop the charges against Pope Leo III if he denied the charges under oath. Pope Leo III denied the charges and the way was cleared for a magnificent celebration of the Nativity .

On Christmas Day, as Charlemagne, in the chlamys and sandals of a patricius Romanus, knelt before St. Peter's altar in prayer, Pope Leo III produced a jeweled crown, and set it upon the King's head. This gave Charlemagne the "Devine Right to Rule" according to the Roman Church.

Having conquered an empire and established the "Devine Right to Rule", Charlemagne then began to establish some uniformity within the empire. The ancient concept of public order had not been entirely destroyed by the invasion of barbarians. But, as law and order weakened, its place was partly taken by the Churchmen's Nations of peace and right order. Charlemagne established a system of courts to provide justice to all free disputants.

In conclusion Charlemagne was a Frankish Warrior King with the background and traditions of Germanic peoples. It seems that Charlemagne united an empire by conquest and ruled by the authority of the Pope. Charlemagne also treated his empire as his personal property and divided his realm among his sons. Either he failed to realize that only with unity could the empire become a true power, or he placed his own wishes, and those of his sons, above the decisions that would best serve the empire in the future.

Duckett, Eleanor S. Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne. Connecticut Archon, 165.

Einhard, Life of Charlemagne, trans. Lewis Thorpe, (Harmondsworth and Baltimore, 16).

Lauret, Rene. France and Germany The Legacy of Charlemagne. Chicago Henry Regnery Company, 164.

TURNER, WILLIAM. "Carolingian Schools." "The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume III." (http//www.newadvent.org/cathen/04c.htm). 1

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The Fall of Enron

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Not so long ago, Enron's name was amid a lexicon of corporate and political power. However in a matter of months Enron transformed from one of the greatest corporate success stories in US history to the centre of perhaps the largest corporate scandal the business community has ever seen, engulfing company executives, one of the worlds largest accounting firms, politicians and Wall street traders. This paper analysis's the amazing journey of Enron form an organisation held in the highest of esteem by the community and envied by competitors, to its shocking demise leaving its name a disgrace and sparking a long line of investigations and criminal and civil charges laid upon its officers and accountants from burned investors and former trading partners.

In the early eighties when takeovers were the business strategy of choice, Kenneth Lay successfully fended off a hostile takeover of his pipeline company, Houston Natural Gas. It was then that Lay realised that the key to the company's survival was, 'to make itself to big to devour' (Henriques 00). So in 185 Lay orchestrated the merger of his company with the largest pipeline company in the world, Internorth of Nebraska. The merged company changed its name and Lay was put in charge. Enron was born.

Initially the company was faced with enormous challenges. Beyond being saddled with debt from the merger, Enron was submerged into a rough, deregulated marketplace. Lay was not satisfied with Enron simply being a mover and seller of gas. Lay saw wide spread opportunities in the industry and moved the company into the commodities trading world of electricity, gas, wood pulp, steel, advertising time on television, insurance against credit default and later moved into the world of e-commerce adding high speed data and internet capacity to it lengthening list of company resources.

Business boomed and Enron was thriving. By 15, Enron had become the biggest participant in the natural gas industry, controlling one fifth of North Americas market (Eichenwald 00). Enron was ranked number seven by Fortune magazine in April 001 in Fortunes ranking by market capitalization of the five hundred largest corporations in the United States (Gomez 00). At its peak Enron had annual revenues of more than $100 billion, employed more than 0,000 people and was widely recognised as the biggest e-commerce company in the world carrying a bubble era inflated stock price to match.

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Kenneth Lay, Enron's CEO created strong relationships with many of the nations politicians, including president George W Bush as well as making large contributions to many political campaigns. By the time Mr Bush was inaugurated in 001, Enron and its executives were the largest contributors over Mr Bushes career with an amount exceeding $750 000 (Eichenwald 00), It was through these relationships in which Enron became a pioneer in deregulating Energy markets in the US. According to Mr Hebert, chairman of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, conversations with Mr Lay carried a clear message, 'Enron, a generous contributor to the Bush campaign, would use its White House access to advance its interests' (Henriques 00).

All told, Enron represented a collective investment of $10 million, however in reality it was producing minimal returns (Schultz 00). From the outside looking in few of Enron's problems were evident.

18 saw Enron earn its highest ever annual profit. Earnings continued to rise and Enron's stocks climbed to $0 a share, showing a promising future for the company. However, what none knew was that this success was not only unsustainable, but also was to be short lived. In mid 1, Enron executives began the manoeuvres that set the thriving company on its doomed path.

Enron was in desperate need of additional capital to continue its growth, despite the substantial debt it already held. Funding new investments by issuing additional debt or raising capital was unappealing as it diluted earnings per share and was unattractive on financial statements. Andrew Fastow, Enron's chief financial officer was able to solve the company's problem, or so they thought. Fastow set up several partnerships which allowed Enron to move debt off its balance sheets and provide an influx of cash flows from outside investors such as banks. The partnerships set up were defined as Special Purpose Entities (SPE). The use of SPE's are common among US corporations. They provide that as long as at least % of capital comes from outsiders, an SPE can be left off the consolidated financial statements of the parent company (Reinstein & Weirich). This enabled Enron to raise cash flows through debt under SPE's without it being recorded as a debt on financial statements or disclosed to shareholders. On the surface, this arrangement represented a common financing technique decreasing the company's risk by moving it debts to separate partnerships that were not included on the parent companies financial statements (Schultz 00). However, later it was revealed that these partnerships were used by Enron as a tool for making the company appear far more profitable than it really was. At least a dozen of these partnerships were set up.

Enron's stock prices were the key link which enabled Enron to keep hundreds of millions of dollars of potential losses off its books. The contracts between Enron and the partnerships had provisions, called triggers, that required Enron stock prices to remain above a specific level. When Enron's stock was trading as high as $0, the stock prices attached to these triggers were - $57.78 in one case, $47 a share in another and $8 in third. At a time when the stock prices were so high, the triggers seemed absurdly low and none though the stock would ever reach such lows (Cameron 00).

As the Nasdaq boom in technology stocks fizzled, Enron stock began to fall. Stocks hovered around $70 a share, however this was still far from the trigger prices and so alarms weren't being raised just yet. Under accounting standards, Enron was able to keep roughly $504 million of red ink off its books as long as the SPE's remained financially healthy enough to fulfil their obligations. However the SPE's were deteriorating. In March 001, accountants found ways to refinance then using a series of complex and fragile transactions, however they were merely putting off the inevitable. This allowed Enron, in April, to present first quarter results for 001, boasting $45 million in earnings, while huge losses were shuffled away in "off balance sheet" partnerships. Enron may have seemingly won the battle but it was about to loose the war.

Enrons stocks continued to fall. By mid June 001, Enron stocks were floating alarmingly close to the trigger prices that had once seemed so ludicrously remote. "On Monday, July 001, Enron's stocks closed at $46.66. It would never rise above $47 again" (Henriques 000).

August 14th saw the world inside Enron take another twist. Jeff Skilling, who had been made CEO just six months prior, after Lay stepped down, announced that he was resigning. Citing undisclosed personal reasons as the grounds for his decision, he left assuring investors that the finances of Enron had never been better.

By late September, Enron was essentially doomed, although it would be weeks before that reality sank in. The problems at Enron went by unnoticed by the public as the nation focused on the horror and aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks.

Another blow for Enron came when auditors from Anderson discovered a mistake they had made more than a year earlier. They way they accounted for Enron's shares that had been used to finance the partnerships had incorrectly added $1 billion to the assets on Enron's balance sheet. Correcting this mistake would reduce Enron's assets by $1 billion. On the 16th of October Enron announced it was deducting $1 billion from its third quarter earnings, producing its first loss in more than 4 years. A loss amounting to $5 million. As a result October saw Enron stocks fall to around $0 a share and continued to decline heavily.

In late October another bomb was dropped. It appeared that Chewco, one of Enron's SPE's which had been treated as an independent entity which housed millions of dollars of debt, did not meet the accounting requirements of such. This meant that all Enron's prior transactions with Chewco had essentially been transactions with itself, constituting a criminal act.

Lay, who had stepped back as CEO after the resignation of Skilling, realised Enron was in over its head and began looking for options to save the troubled company. After exhausting almost all options there appeared a light at the end of the tunnel for Enron. After talks with one of Enron's long time rivals, Dynergy Inc, it appeared that a merger between the two companies was the answer.

On the surface, the Dynergy deal seemed to be Enron's salvation. Boards of the two companies tentatively agreed to the merger on November 7th 001. Enron shortly after was forced to announce that its financial performance since 1 had been an illusion, largely created by Fastows partnerships and the manipulation of SPE's. Correcting the improper accounting for its dealings with these partnerships meant that $600 million in previously reported profits were wiped out (Reinstein & Weririch 00).

The downward spiral for Enron was beginning to reach the end of the road. The company was hemorraging cash. A week after signing the merger agreement Enron burnt through $ billion and was not able to account for a large portion of where the money had gone. Payment on many debts were accelerated due to the troubles Enron was experiencing. Enron owed $60 million, payable within days. On November 0th Enron's shares closed at $6. a share. As a result of the recent events Dynergy terminated the merger. It appeared Enron's had reached the end of its downhill slide.

At 4.8 am December nd Enron officially filed the petition for bankruptcy. The game had ended. Enron's audacious climb to Success ended in a dizzying plunge.

001 had seen Enron take on a new mission to become "the worlds greatest company" (Eichenwald 00). Today Enron is renoun as the world's greatest story as the biggest, fastest corporate collapse in American history.

The demise of Enron can be largely attributed to its relationship and dealings with the partnerships it created. A weakened economy in the wake of the Nasdaq tech stock burst and September 11th also assisted in the company's deterioration. However other issues inside the company also played a key role. Corporate culture inside Enron has been speculated as a major contributor to Enron's brutal collapse. It was a culture of greed and arrogance which breed excessive secrecy. An insider described Enron's culture as " an adrenaline driven culture, with an obsession of 15% a year or better growth" (Fox 00). Enron also had a rank or yank policy anyone not ranking well was subject to be yanked. "Employees who were yanked sometimes had just 0 minutes to get their things together and leave" (Packer 00).

The controversy surrounding Enron has seen the formation of many jokes which circulate the industry. "What is business school morality? It is the ethic that says the purpose of every living creature on Earth is to increase shareholders value. It says that conduct is acceptable if it passes an audit and pleases Wall Street analysts." (Packer 00). "What is tooth-fairy economics? It is a body of knowledge that ignores the implications of expecting endless growth. If a company isn't growing at a rate of 0% compounded annually, management is deemed to be incompetent" (Packer 00). While it is of a satirical nature, Packer does successfully reflect on the culture which existed inside Enron.

At the centre of the Enron storm is the accounting firm Arthur Anderson. Anderson was both, Enron's external auditor as well as their internal accountant and advisor. Enron was Anderson's second biggest client. Last year alone it collected $5 million in audit fees, and even more for it's accounting and advisory work (Grey 00). This remains one of the most highly debated issues in the US today, should a public firm serve both as an auditor and a consultant? Anderson failed to raise the alarms regarding a number of accounting scandals which inevitably bought the company to its knees. Whilst Anderson denies any wrong doing, including the shredding of documents relating to Enron, is has admitted to "an error in judgement" in its treatment of Enron's 'off balance sheet' vehicles which led to an overstatement of profits by more than $600 million between 17 and 000 (Reinstein & Weirich 00).

In the tragic demise of America's seventh largest corporation there is no one person can be held accountable. Auditors who had multiple and conflicting roles did not raise alarms about improper financial statements. Directors failed in their duty to closely question management and accountants, and thus failed to ferret out the accounting irregularities. Lawyers and company officers set up partnerships that concealed the true financial plight of the company. Rating agencies yielded to the entreaties of management and only slightly downgraded credit ratings at a time when the company was failing. While Wall Street analysts from companies such as Goldman Sachs continually recommended Enron stock, even as it plummeted. As those on the outside wonder in disarray how a company boasting such power and success could collapse in just 11 months, many on the inside are still amazed that the troubled empire remained as long as it did. In essence the collapse was the result of a highly flawed vision; the consequences essentially inevitable.

Bibliography

1. Davis, J (00), "The Enron Factor", ABA Journal, Chicago, April.

. Eichenwald, K (00), "Web of Detaild Did Enron In as Warnings Went Unheeded", New York Times, Feb 10th.

. Eichenwald, K (00), "Audatious Climb to Success Ended in a Dizzying Plunge", New York Times, Jan 1th.

4. Fox, L (00) "Enron The Rise and Fall", Harper Collins Publishers, NY.

5. Goldstein, J (001), "What Was Enron", Wall Street Journal, New York, Dec 1th.

6. Gomez, L (00), "Enron a case for better understanding cash flows", Business Credit, New York, Jul/Aug

7. Henriques, D (00), "Seeking a quick fix; Struggling to avoid posting huge losses, Newsweek, Jan 4th.

8. Holman, W & Jenkins, J (00), "Enron for Beginners", Wall Street Journal, New York, Jan rd.

. Kaufman, H (00), "The Fall Out From Enron; Lessons and Consequences", Vital Speeches of the Day, New York, May 15th.

10. Packer, A (00), "Enron the movie", Machine Design, Cleveland, May th.

11. Reinstein, A & Weirich, T (00) "Accounting Issues at Enron", CPA Journal, New York, Dec.

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Factors that impede the tight integration between business strategy and Human Resource strategies in the hospitality industry.

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Factors that impede the tight integration between business strategy and Human Resource strategies in the hospitality industry.

The integration of corporate and human resource strategy is one of the much-debated topics within the concept of strategic human resource management.

Truss and Gratton (14) describe strategic human resource management as the linking of HRM (Human Resource Management) with strategic goals and objectives in order to improve business performance and develop organizational cultures that foster innovation and flexibility. Thus, Strategic HR means integrating the HR function of an organisation with the companys strategy through HR activities such as recruitment, selection, training and rewards and any other HR activities specific to the hospitality organisation.

The necessity of this integration is demonstrated by Miles and Snow (14) who suggest that, without human resource strategies and policies linked into strategic business objectives, high levels of organisational performance are not likely.

Custom Essays on Factors that impede the tight integration between business strategy and Human Resource strategies in the hospitality industry.

There are, however a number of problems that arise in the process of this integration both within the concepts demonstrated by Hoque (1) as internal fit and external fit.External fit being the HR strategy meshed with the business strategy such that there should be a consistency between the values and aims within each. Internal fit therefore refering to

the introduction of HRM as an institutionally supported package of practices that cohere with and mutually reinforce each other i.e. employee policies, commitment, flexibility and quality of work.

It is to be argued that one of the main barriers to the successful integration of business and human resource strategy is the lack of commitment and understanding of management (both corporate and line management) to the cause of HRM integration.

Dyer and Holder (188) adopt the stance that top management is probably the most powerful force that can work against the adoption of HRM iniatives.

Whilst Kane (1) takes the view that, top management take a short-termist perspective on HRM because they believe that evidence of HRM having a long-term and positive impact on individual or organisation level performance is sketchy.

Kane goes on to report on the possible reason for senior and middle managers negative perspective on the value of HRM could also be attributed to their inability to establish tangible elements and positive outcomes directly linked to HRM therefore their commitment deviates or becomes non-existent.

Hoque, Ks (1) research into UK hotels indicates poor practice and a lack of interest in HRM among managers in the hotel industry.

Whilst, Tyson (17) portrays the attitude of line managers towards human resource activities as one of the key organisational features for successful HRM.

Due to management at a "floor" level being at the source of HRM in terms of its implementation at an operational level, line managers can been viewed as a major barrier to impede the integration of corporate and HR strategies.

It is therefore suggested that if the integration is to be achieved to its utmost potential, management on all levels must realise the effectiveness of HRM policies and procedures and how to sucessfully immplement them into the organisation.

Taking all this information into account, the research undertaken by Hoque (1) into Human Resource Management and Performance in the UK Hotel Industry, takes a different stance suggesting that for corporate management to impede the integration of strategies, it is done so indirectly through taking a focus [within the business strategy] on cost reduction or on price factors [which] leads to sup-optimal performance within the industry.

Thus illustrating that corporate management should ideally emphasise an opposite quality- enhancer method with regard to service and the product in question.

Schuler and Jackson (187) reinforce this issue by arguing organisations that have a quality enhancement or innovation approach within its business strategy will make effective use of HRM. Thus leading to suggest that if the organisation has to priortise cost reduction within its strategy, the logical approach to deal with the issue would be to emphasise numerical flexibility and cost control.

However, this deviation does not fully resolve the situation as, if cost reduction is priortised within the business strategy, it could potentially upset policies and procedures that have been instilled by the HR Department.

These policies and procedures will be discussed later in the essay.

Hoque (1) also puts forward the view that HRM practices implemented in a seemingly piecemeal and uncoordinated fashion have fewer benefits, which is true of practices in any hospitality department.

In order for said practices to be otherwise strategically implemented in a fashion relevant to the firm, a functioning, effective, well supported Human Resource Department must be in place. This point being relevant to any organisation which wishes to advance its performance through the aims and objectives outlined in its business strategy.

The level at which HR staff are proactive/reactive to their role within their department can also be foreseen as a major contributing factor to the integration of the aformentioned strategies.

The view that staff within HR departments, are lacking knowledge in their field, are poorly trained and most importantly have an overall ineffective presence in terms of tangible results, is one held widely throughout not only the hospitality industry, but across many other industries. As Kane, Crawford and Grants (1) research shows, there is a general agreement that they [HR managers] lack the knowledge, skills, influence, credibility and perspective on their roles to implement a strategic approach to HRM.(MORE THAN ONE QUOTE!!!)

It is therefore vital that the Human Resource department takes a proactive approach to their roles within strategic plans and subsequent activities undertaken, as Tyson, S (DATE) suggests, strategic HRM will not occur unless the human resource professional takes steps to make it happen.

In terms of HRM the HR department is the first point of contact in a hospitality establishment for employees and line managers. If the knowledge of the staff in the HR department is sub-standard, the information, policies and procedures that are passed onto managers/employees could be of comparable relevance. This potentially may lead to the integration between the two strategies being even further impeded.

Therefore the HR department must not only possess the basic skills of Human Resource management, but also realise the individual features of the business strategy the company is adopting, how the strategies support each other and their role to support the fit between the two. Through this, the department can then adopt its policies and procedures to suit, but can also recruit, select, train and reward employees according to a set strategy.

HR staff therefore need to be able to realise the importance of their actions and how it impacts on the integration of the business and HR strategy.

If their signifiance to the strategy is realised and the support given from management is forth-coming and effective, the "fit" between strategies potentially can be achieved to a greater degree.

The previous factors of management commitment to the integration between business and HR strategies and the relevance of HR staff have both been shown to be of significant importance when integrating strategies.

However, the current state and perception of HR as a concept and its relevance to the hospitality industry, is a factor that if not shown to demonstrate its relevance, may have further detramential effects on the aforementioned elements.

Price (14) enforces this statement by arguing that practices in the hotel industry were so far removed from both the personnel and industrial relations and the human resource management ideal types, that neither model should be used to inform research on the [hotel] industry.

Whilst this representing one end of the spectrum, the relevance of Human Resources to the hospitality industry is a widely debated and much critisised one.

This factor is of significant importance when linking back to the previous areas of management and the HR department. Management have already been shown by Kane and Crawford (1) to need tangible and positive outcomes to comprehend and support the incorporation of a HR strategy whilst also realising the potential it has to work positively and help make strategic, informed decisions for the organisation.

Kane and Crawford (1) state that, there is considerable agreement about the lack of proven knowledge and the difficulty in quantifying the results of HRM, thus not supplying the essential tangible results.

The acknowledgement of opinions by managers/employees in hospitalitycould lead to possible cynicism from managers/employees in hospitality when required to adhere to policies and/or procedures set by the HR department.

Sisson (1) reports findings of only fragments of HRM being found in his study of UK hotels, this in uxtaposition with Lucass (15) view there is sparse evidence to be found of any UK hotels that have taken HR "seriously onboard", lead the reader to a fairly poor outlook on the current state of HRM in the hospitality industry.

It is therefore made all the more clear that in order for HR departments to effectively integrate with businesss strategy, they need to have clearly defined policies and procedures to lead tothe tangible results when dealing with an organisations personnel. Legge (15) suggests the soft approach involving encouraging motivation, development and commitment. This methods main emphasis is on developing a workforce that is innovative and of a valued resource to the company therefore emphasising self-development.

Hoteliers such as Malmaison and the Hilton (REFs www) group can be used as examples of companies that employ a variety of soft models when dealing with policies and procedures, due to their detailed training methods, appraisals and procedures that encourage employee feedback.

The hard method on the other hand is more closely tied with the business strategy and is suggested to be used by companies with a stress on cost control due to its strict reliance on policies and procedures. The outcome of this being that it leaves minimal room for employee innovation and development.

Schuler (18) has undertaken research into cost reduction and quality enhancement strategies, even though the context is aimed more towards the manufacturing and industrial sectors, the basic principles are demonstrated to have hospitality relevance.

His evidence takes the skeptical view that as predictable as the outcomes of the hard model are, the relevance and existence of a HR department comes under question as reliance on this model means power rests in the hands of the top executives and designers of the workflow processes.

The negative aspects of the "hard" model being the effect on staff morale and motivation as there is little room left for deviation from the policies and procedures potentially leading to increased employee turnover.

However, the positive aspects of employing this system being the low level of un-certaintity due to the predictability of competition and customer behaviour.

The obvious examples of hospitality firms that employ this system being major standardised fast food chains and quick service restaurants.

The logical approach when considering the application of hard and soft HR models would be to integrate models that compliment each other. As previously discussed the concept of fit is all important when discussing the integration between the two strategies in question, however this concept of close fit may contradict the elements of the soft model. Due to the hospitality industry being renowned for cutting costs/corners through minimum wages, low quality service and products, this may be the reason why HR strategies have failed to have a positive impact.

Therefore; it is essential that HRM practices are consistent with what the organisation is trying to achieve otherwise, as Schuler (18) reports, role conflict and ambiguity may result in poor individual employee performance and affect the organisational performance of the organisation.A point argued by Tyson, S is that without human resource strategies and policies linked into strategic business objectives high levels of organisational performance are not likely. If this resource is successfully employed, the concept of HRM depends on how it is applied in a work situation and the tangible outcomes of integrating HR into a business strategy.

The evidence illustrated therefore demonstrates that the concept of fit between strategies lacks specific concepts and empirically elusive

The research conducted and points highlighted have shown that the aligning of business and HR strategies complex whilst there being a multitude of research conducted on the subject, the amount of research specific to hospitality is minimal.

Therefore the validity of HRM within the context of this essay depends on the extent to which human resources are used for the achievement of competitive benefit and added value to the firm and therefore should be treated one of the organisations decisive strategic resources.

Bibliography

In search of HRM Sission K British Journal of Industrial Relations 1

Strategic Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations R.S.Schuler

Human Relations Volume 41 Number 18 pp157-184

Human Resource Management and Performance in the UK Hotel Industry Hoque,K

British Journal of Industrial Relations September 1 pp41-44

The Practice of Human Resource Strategy, Tyson S, Pitman Publishing

Barriers to effective HRM Kane, B and Crawford, J International Journal of Manpower Volume 0 No8 1 pp44-515

Linking Competitive Strategy with Human Resource Management Practices Schuler R.S and Jackson, S.E The Academy of Management Executive 187 Volume 1 No pp07-1

HRM in Hotels a Focus on Commitment, Guinngle P.J and Jameson S, Employee Relations Volume No 4 00 pp40-4

Human Resource Management a strategic approach to employment Hendry C Butterworth Heinemann 000

Introducing Human Resource Management nd Edition Foot, M and Hook, C, Longman, 1

Lucas, R. (16) Industrial Relations in hotels and cateringneglect or paradox?, British Journal of Industrial Relations Vol. 4 No pp. 67-86

Price, L. (14) Poor personnel practice in the hotel and catering industry does it matter? Human Resource Management Journal Vol 4 No 4 pp.44-6

Sission, K.(10) Introduction Human Resource Management Journal Vol.1 No.1

Please note that this sample paper on Factors that impede the tight integration between business strategy and Human Resource strategies in the hospitality industry. is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Factors that impede the tight integration between business strategy and Human Resource strategies in the hospitality industry., we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Factors that impede the tight integration between business strategy and Human Resource strategies in the hospitality industry. will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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